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Biological Psychology 402 > Chapter 8 Movement > Flashcards

Chapter 8 Movement Flashcards

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1
Q

aerobic

A

movements that require oxygen

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2
Q

anaerobic

A

proceeding without using oxygen at the time of a reaction

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3
Q

antagonistic muscles

A

Antagonistic muscles

opposing sets of muscles that are required to move a leg or arm back and forth

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4
Q

antisaccade task

A

Antisaccade task

a voluntary eye movement away from the normal direction

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5
Q

Babinski reflex

A

Babinski reflex

the extension of the big toe and fanning of the others, by an infant, when the sole of the foot is stroked

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6
Q

Ballistic movements

A

Ballistic movement

motion that proceeds as a single organized unit that cannot be redirected once it begins

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7
Q

Cardiac muscles

A

Cardiac muscles

muscles of the heart that have properties intermediate between those of smooth and skeletal muscles

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8
Q

Caudate nucleus

A

Caudate nucleus

large subcortical structure, part of the basal ganglia

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9
Q

Central pattern generators

A

Central pattern generators

neural mechanisms in the spinal cord that generate rhythmic patterns of motor output

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10
Q

Cerebellar cortex

A

Cerebellar cortex

the surface of the cerebellum

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11
Q

Corticospinal tracts

A

Corticospinal tracts

paths from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord

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12
Q

extensor

A

Extensor

muscle that straightens the limb

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13
Q

Fast-twitch Fibers

A

Fast-twitch fibers

muscle fibers that produce fast contractions but fatigue rapidly

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14
Q

Flexor

A

Flexor

muscle that flexes the limb

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15
Q

Globus Pallidus

A

Globus pallidus

large subcortical structure; part of the basal ganglia

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16
Q

Golgi tendon organs

A

Golgi tendon organs

receptors that respond to increases in muscle tension; inhibit further contractions

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17
Q

Grasp reflex

A

Grasp reflex

a reflexive grasp of an object placed firmly in the hand

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18
Q

Huntingtin

A

Huntingtin

protein produced by the gene whose mutation leads to Huntington&rsquos disease

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19
Q

Huntington’s disease

A

Huntington’s disease
a severe neurological disorder characterized by jerky arm movements and facial twitches and later by tremors, writhing movements, and psychological symptoms

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20
Q

L-dopa

A

L-dopa

chemical precursor to dopamine

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21
Q

Lateral corticospinal tract

A

Lateral corticospinal tract
a set of axons from the primary motor cortex, surrounding areas, and midbrain area that is primarily responsible for controlling the peripheral muscles

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22
Q

Medial corticospinal tract

A

Medial corticospinal tract
set of axons from many parts of the cerebral cortex, midbrain, and medulla; responsible for control of bilateral muscles of the neck, shoulders, and trunk

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23
Q

Mirror Neurons

A

Mirror neurons

cells that are active during a movement and while watching someone else perform the same movement

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24
Q

Motor Program

A

Motor program

a fixed sequence of movements

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25
Q

MPP1

A

MPP1

a chemical that accumulates in, and then destroys, neurons that release dopamine

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26
Q

MPTP

A

MPTP

a chemical that the body converts to MPP1

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27
Q

Muscle spindle

A

Muscle spindle

a receptor parallel to the muscle that responds to a stretch

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28
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

Neuromuscular junction

a synapse between a motor neuron axon and a muscle fiber

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29
Q

Neurotrophin

A

Neurotrophin

a chemical that promotes the survival and activity of neurons

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30
Q

Nuclei of the cerebellum

A

Nuclei of the cerebellum

clusters of cell bodies in the interior of the cerebellum

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31
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

Parkinson’s disease
malady caused by damage to a dopamine pathway, resulting in slow movements, difficulty initiating movements, rigidity of the muscles, and tremors

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32
Q

Posterior parietal cortex

A

Posterior parietal cortex
area with a mixture of visual, somatosensory, and movement functions, particularly in monitoring the position of the body relative to objects in the world

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33
Q

Premotor cortex

A

Premotor cortex

area of the frontal cortex, active during the planning of a movement

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34
Q

Primary motor cortex

A

Primary motor cortex
area of the prefrontal cortex just anterior to the central sulcus; a primary point of origin for axons conveying messages to the spinal cord

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35
Q

Proprioceptor

A

Proprioceptor

a receptor that detects the position or movement of a part of the body

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36
Q

Purkinje cell

A

Purkinje cell

flat cells in sequential planes, in the cerebellar cortex, parallel to one another

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37
Q

Putamen

A

Putamen

large subcortical structure, part of the basal ganglia

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38
Q

Readiness potential

A

Readiness potential

recordable activity in the motor cortex prior to voluntary movement

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39
Q

Red nucleus

A

Red nucleus

a midbrain area that is primarily responsible for controlling the arm muscles

40
Q

Reflexes

A

Reflexes

automatic muscular responses to stimuli

41
Q

Rooting reflex

A

Rooting reflex

when an infant&rsquos cheek is touched, the infant turns toward the stimulated cheek and begins to suck

42
Q

Skeletal (striated) muscles

A

Skeletal (striated) muscles

muscles that control movement of the body in relation to the environment

43
Q

Slow-twitch fibers

A

Slow-twitch fibers

muscle fibers that have less vigorous contractions and no fatigue

44
Q

smooth muscles

A

Smooth muscles

those that control the digestive system and other organs

45
Q

stem cells

A

Stem cells

undifferentiated cells that divide and produce daughter cells that develop more specialized properties

46
Q

Stretch reflex

A

Stretch reflex

a reflexive contraction of a muscle in response to a stretch of that muscle

47
Q

Substantia nigra

A

Substantia nigra

a midbrain structure that, similar to schizophrenia, gives rise to a pathway releasing dopamine

48
Q

Supplementary motor cortex

A

Supplementary motor cortex

area of the frontal cortex; active during preparation of a rapid sequence of movements

49
Q

Vestibular nucleus

A

Vestibular nucleus

cluster of neurons in the brainstem, primarily responsible for motor responses to vestibular sensation

50
Q

list three categories of muscle.

A

smooth muscle
cardiac muscle and
skeletal muscle

51
Q

What is the transmitter at the neuromuscular junction?

A

neuromuscular junction- synapse between a n=motor neuron axon and a muscle fiber
acetylcholine is the transmitter and acetycholine excites the muscles to contract a deficit of acetylcholine or its receptors impairs movement

52
Q

Describe the symptoms and cause of myasthenia gravis

A

a condition causeing abnormal weakness of certain muscles (skeletal)
autoimmune
defect in the transmission of never impulses to muscles

53
Q

What are two types of treatment for myasthenia gravis?

A

acetylcholinesterase agents (drugs) such as neostigmine and pyridostigment
these help improve muscular transmission
immunosuppressive drugs–prednisone, cyclosporin etc.
improve muscle strength by suppressing the production of abnormal abs.

54
Q

List the types of functions of skeletal muscle in fish

A

3 types of muscles: red, pink and white
Red produces slowest movement
White is the fastest movement but fatigue rapidly
Pink is intermediate
High temp fish rely on red and pink muscles
Low temp they rely on white muscles to maintain its speed

55
Q

How are mammalian muscles different from those of fish?

A

8.1
have various kinds of muscle fibers mixed together and not in separate bundles as in fish
Our own muscles range from fast twitch fibers to slow twitch fivers with less vigorous contractions and no fatigue

56
Q

Contrast muscles of sprinters and marathon runners

A

Sprinters fast twitch fibers (AnO2)
Marathon runners slow twitch fibers (o2)
8.1

57
Q

What is a proprioceptor?

A

receptor that detects the position or movement of a part of the body like muscles
a stretch reflex is caused by a stretch-when a muscle is stretched, the spinal cord sends a reflexive signal to contract it

58
Q

What is a muscle spindle? What is its effect on the spinal motor neuron that innervates its associated muscles?

A

muscle spindle is a kind of proprioceptor-a receptor parallel to the muscle that responds to stretch
Whenever the muscle spindle is stretched its sensory nerve sends a message to a motor neuron in the spinal cord which in turn sends a message back to the muscles surrounding the spindle causing a contraction

59
Q

Explain the knee-jerk reflex

A

Tap on your knee-stretches your extensor muscles of the leg.
The sensory nerves of the spindles send action potentials to the motor neuron in the spinal cord and the motor neuron sends action potentials to the extensor muscles

60
Q

What is the golgi tendon organ? What is its effect on the spin motor neuron that innervates its associated muscle? What is its functional role?

A

they are also proprioceptors and they respond to increases in muscle tension.
located in the tendons at opposite ends of the muscles they act on as a brake against an excessively vigorous contraction
-golgi tendon organ detects the tension during muscle contraction impulse travels to spin cord-excite motor
the internurons that inhibits the motor neurons
i.e. a vigorous muscle contraction inhibits the further contractions by activating the golgi tendon organs

61
Q

What is a reflex?

A

automatic response to stimuli

and are involutary

62
Q

Describe some of the involuntary components of “voluntary’ behaviours, such as walking or talking

A

compensate for uneven bumps in the road

63
Q

What is ballistic movement?

A

a movement that is scented as a whole
once initiated it cannot be altered
eg reflexes are ballistic

64
Q

What is a motor program? Give examples of “built-in” and learned motor programs

A

fixed sequence of movements is called a motor program

e.g. drop a chicken and it flaps its wings.

65
Q

Do humans have any built-in motor patterns

A

yes we do:
yawning
smiles and frowns

66
Q

Describe the role of primary motor cortex in the control of movement.

A

direct electrical stimulation of primary motor cortex the pre central gyrus of the frontal cortex just anterior to the central sulcus- elicits movements

  • the motor cortex does not send messages directly to muscles
  • its axons extend to the brainstem and spinal cord which generate imposes that control the muscles
67
Q

to what two processes do neurons in the posterior parietal cortex respond?

A

posterior parietal cortex-area keeps track of the positions of the body relative to the world
-also important for planning movement
Damage-people have trouble finding objects in space- walking and bumping into things is an example

68
Q

Describe the roles of the prefrontal, premotor, and supplementary motor cortex.

A

prefrontal cortex and supplementary motor cortex- also impt for planning and organizing a rapid sequence of movements (note: posterior parietal cortex has this function as well)
premotor cortex-most active immediately before a movement
-receives information about the target to which the body is directing its movement as well as bodies current posture

69
Q

Where does the dorsolateral tract begin? Where does it cross from one side to the other?

A

begins in the midbrain (near the pons)
cross in the medulla behind bottom of pons
a set of axons from primary motor cortex and red nucleus
a midbrain area controls arm muscles
corsses over in the bulges of the medulla called the pyramids

70
Q

From what structures doe the ventromedial tract originate? What is the relationship between this tract and the two sides of the spinal cord?

A

connects to the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord
inclides axons from many parts of the cerebral cortex and surrounding area-also includes axons from midbrain tectum, the reticular formation and the vestibular nucleus
axons of medial tract go to both sides of the spinal cord
controls mainly muscles of the neck, shoulders and trunk.

71
Q

Which movements are controlled by the dorsolateral tract and which by the ventromedial tract?

A

dorsolateral tract controls precise and discreet movements of extremities such as hands, finger and feet
medial tract-cintrols trunk muscles for postural adjustments and bilateral movements such as standing and bending turning and walking.

72
Q

What kinds of movements are especially affected by cerebellar damage?

A

-rapid movements that require aim, timing and alternation of movements
eg have trouble tapping a rhythm clapping hands typing, writing, playing a musical instrument.

73
Q

What are saccades? Describe the effects of cerebellar damage on the control of saccades?

A

ballistic eye moments from one fixation point to another

  • depends on impulses form the cerebellum and the frontal cortex to the cranial nerves
  • someone with cerebellar dame has difficulty programming the angle and distance of eye movement
74
Q

Describe the motor control required to touch he’s finer to one’s nose as quickly as possible.

A

normal person three steps: 1. the finger moves ballistically to a point just in front of the nose (this move relies on the cerebellar cortex which sends messages tot he deep nuclei (clusters of cell bodies)

  1. the finger remains steady at that spot for a fraction of a sec (depends on nuclei alone
  2. finally finger moves to nose–does not depend on cerebellum.
75
Q

Why may a place officer use the finger to nose test to check for alcohol intoxication?

A

resembles damage to cerebellar damage

clumsiness slurred speech and inaccurate eye movements

76
Q

Describe the evidence for a broad role for the cerebellum, beyond motor performance.

A

MRI measured cerebellar activity when people lifted objects–showed little activity
But when they felt things with both hands to decide wether they were the same or not=the cerebellum was much more active

77
Q

From what sources does the cerebellum receive input? To which structures do its output fibbers project?

A

receives input form spinal cord from each of the sensory systems by way of the cranial nerve nuclei and from the cerebral cortex. (the surface of the cerebellum)

78
Q

Describe the relationship between the purkinje cells and the parallel fibbers. How does this affect movement?

A

Purkinje cells are flat cells in sequential planes parallel to one another.
Parallel fivers are axons parallel to one another and perpendicular to the planes of the Purkinje cells.
-Depending on how many fibbers are active-they may only stimulate a few Purkinje cells or they may excite a great #of cells greater response.

79
Q

What structures comprise the basal ganglia?

A 
group of large subcortical structures in the forebrain
includes:
caudate nucleus
putamen
and globus pallidus
80
Q

which are the main receptive areas? the main output areas ? Where does the sensory input come from and where does the output go? In reference to basal ganglia

A

Cerebral cortex => caudate nucleus AND putamen =>Globus pallidus (releases GABA–which is an inhibitory transmitter)=> Thalamus and Midbrain => and from thalamus foes to motor and prefrontal areas of the cerebral cortex.

81
Q

What is the role of the basal ganglia in the learning of motor patterns?

A

helps convert new movements into smooth automatic responses

the basal ganglia are essential for learning motor habits that are difficult to describe in words

82
Q

How does cerebellar function compare with that of the basal ganglia?

A

cerebellum-multiple roles in behaviour including sensory functions relating to perception of timing or rhythm
Basal ganglia-important for selecting and inhibiting particular movements
Damage=jerky involuntarily movements

83
Q

Describe the symptoms of Parkinsons Disease

A 
rigidity 
muscle tremors
slow movements
difficulty initiating physical and mental activity
slow on cognition
loss of olfaction early symptom (smell)
84
Q

What is its immediate cause? (parkinsons disease)

What is the result of loss of dopamine stimulation of D2 receptors in the caudate nucleus and putamen?

A

gradual progressive death of neurons esp in the substantial nigra which sends dopamine-releasing axons to the caudate nucleus and the putamen.
Parkinsons patients lose their axons and therefore dopamine
Net result of loss is decreased activity in the thalamus and therefore also other areas of the cerebral cortex.

85
Q

How strong is the evidence for a genetic predisposition for Parkinsons disease?

A

there is a link to some genes that may cause early onset Parkinsons (i.e. before 50) but is weak for the more common late onset patients.

86
Q

How did the experience with a heroin substitute lead to suspicion of an environmental toxin as a cause of this disease?

A

substance MPTP-a chemical the body converts to MPP+ which accumulates in and then destroys, neurons that release dopamine
(Calif 1982-several young aldults developed symptoms of Parkinsons after using a drug similar to heroin)
More likely explanation is environmental toxins etc cause increased incidence of Parkinson’s

87
Q

How may herbicides and pesticides be implicated

A

Parkinsons is more common among farmers. Herbicides and pesticides damage cells of the substantia nigria

88
Q

What is a problem with the toxin-exposure hypothesis?

A

people who smoke or drink coffee have less of a chance to develop parkinsons.

89
Q

What was the unexpected finding concerning cigarette smoking and Parkinsons’s disease? What may the basis for this effect?

A

it decreases incidence of Parkinsons

90
Q

What is the rationale for treatment of Parkinson’s disease with L-dopa? What are the side effects?

A

L-dopa is a precursor to dopamine, crosses the barrier (brain) where as dopamine does not
After it crosses the brain converts it to dopamine
-L-dopa does not stop further neuron loss
nausea, restlessness, sleep problems low BP and repetitive movement hallucinations and delusions are all side effects

91
Q

List some other possible treatments for Parkinson’s disease?

A
  • drugs that decrease apoptosis
  • antioxidants
  • drugs that directly stimulate dopamine receptors
  • drugs that inhibit glutamate or adenosine receptors
  • drugs that stimulate cannabinoid receptors
  • gene therapy-neurotrophis-to promote survival of neurons
92
Q

How successful have brain grafts been in treating Parkinson’s disease in humans? what are some of the problems with the use of fetal tissue? From where win the brain is fetal tissue taken?

A
  • procedure is feasible but need fetal brain cells
  • try aborted fetuses
  • need 4-8 aborted fetuses
  • possible to tissue culture cells
  • area of brain cells needed is substantia nigra
93
Q

What kinds of tissue have been used for brain grafts to treat Parkinson’s disease? what are some potential additional sources for tissue for such grafts?

A

tried the patients own adrenal gland.

94
Q

What are the physical and psychological symptoms of Huntington’s disease?

A

depression, sleep disorders, memory impairment, anxiety, hallucinations and delusions. for psychological symptoms
Also decreased inhibition due to execs damage to the globes pallidus, and therefore involuntary jerky movements
-arm jerks, facial twitches => lead to writhing which gradually interferes with walking and speech
-extensive damage to the caudate nucleus, putamen and globes pallidus and also in cerebral cortex.

95
Q

Discuss the role of genetics in Huntington’s disease. On which chromosome is the gene located?

A

dominant gene on chromosome 4-critical area of the gene includes a sequence of bases C-A-G which is repeated 11-24 times in most people.
People with 39 or more repeats of this sequence may bet the disease
the more repeats of this sequence the earlier a person gets the disease.

96
Q

What is huntingin? What do we know about the base sequence of the gene that codes for it? what may it do inside the cell?

A

the protein huntington codes for Huntington’s disease.
occurs throughout the body but its mutant form produces no harm outside of the brain.
within the brain it occurs INSIDE neurons
impairs neurons by :-in early stages increases neurotransmitters release => over stimulation of target cells
-later protein forms clusters that impair neuron mitochondria
also impairs transport of chemicals down the axon.

Biological Psychology 402 (15 decks)

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