Chapter 7 the Other Sensory Systems Flashcards
1
Q
Across fibre principle
A
ideas that each receptor responds to a wide range of stimuli and contributes to the perception of every stimulus in its system
2
Q
Adaptation
A
decreased response to a stimulus as a result of recent exposure to it
3
Q
Amplitude
A
the intensity of a sound wave
4
Q
Cannabinoids
A
chemicals related to D9-THC
5
Q
Capsaicin
A
a chemical, found in hot peppers, that produces a painful burning sensation by releasing substance P; high dosages damage pain receptors
6
Q
Cochlea
A
structure in the inner ear containing auditory receptors
7
Q
Conductive deafness (middle-ear deafness)
A
hearing loss that occurs if the bones of the middle ear fail to transmit sound waves properly to the cochlea
8
Q
Cross adaptation
A
reduced response to one taste after exposure to another
9
Q
Dermatome
A
area of the body connected to a particular spinal nerve
10
Q
Endorphins
A
transmitters that attach to the same receptors as morphine
11
Q
Frequency
A
the number of cycles per second, measured in Hz
12
Q
Frequency Theory
A
concept that the basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with a sound, causing auditory nerve axons to produce action potentials at the same frequency
13
Q
Gate Theory
A
idea that stimulation of certain axons can close the “gates” for pain messages
14
Q
Hair Cells
A
the auditory receptors that lie along the basilar membrane in the cochlea
15
Q
Label-lined Principle
A
concept that each receptor responds to a limited range of stimuli and has a direct line to the brain
16
Q
Loudness
A
perception of the intensity of a sound
17
Q
Nerve Deafness or inner ear deafness
A
hearing loss that results from damage to the cochlea, the hair cells, or the auditory nerve
18
Q
Nucleus of the tractus solitarius (NTS)
A
structure in the medulla that receives input from taste receptors
19
Q
Olfaction
A
the sense of smell, which is the response to chemicals that contact the membranes inside the nose
20
Q
Olfactory cells
A
neurons responsible for smell, located on the olfactory epithelium in the rear of the nasal air passages
21
Q
Opioid mechanism
A
systems that respond to opiate drugs and similar chemicals
22
Q
Oval window
A
a membrane of the inner ear
23
Q
Pacinian Corpuscle
A
receptor that responds to a sudden displacement of the skin or high-frequency vibrations on the skin
24
Q
Periaqueductal gray area
A
area of the brainstem that is rich in enkephalin synapses
25
Pheromones
chemicals released by an animal that affect the behavior of other members of the same species
26
Pinna
the outer ear structure of flesh and cartilage that sticks out from each side of the head
27
Pitch
the related aspect of perception
28
Place Theory
concept that pitch perception depends on which part of the inner ear has cells with the greatest activity level
29
Placebo
a drug or other procedure with no pharmacological effects
30
Primary auditory cortex (area A1)
area in the superior temporal cortex in which cells respond best to tones of a particular frequency
31
Semi circular canals
structures located in the vestibular organ, oriented in three planes and lined with hair cells; sensitive to the directional tilt of the head
32
Somatosensory System
sensory network that monitors the surface of the body and its movements
33
Substance P
a neurotransmitter released by pain axons in the spinal cord
34
Supertasters
people with heightened sensitivity to all tastes and mouth sensations
35
Synesthesia
the experience some people have in which stimulation of one sense evokes a perception of that sense and another one also
36
Tinnitus
frequent or constant ringing in the ears
37
Tympanic membrane
ear drum
38
Volley principle
tenet that the auditory nerve as a whole produces volleys of impulses for sounds even though no individual axon approaches that frequency
39
Vomeronasal organ (VNO)
a set of receptors, located near, but separate from, the olfactory receptors
40
What is the relationship between amplitude and loudness? Between frequency and pitch?
amplitude - intensity of sound wave
Loudness is a sensation related to amplitude but not identical
Faster is perceived as louder
Frequency of sound is the # of compressions/sec measured in Hz
Pitch is higher frequency sounds = higher pitch
41
What is the roles of the tympanic membranous and the hammer, anvil, and stirrup
tympanic membrane- ear drum
-sound waves pass thru auditory canal and strike the tympanic membrane which connects to 3 tiny bones that transit the vibration to the oval window
Tiny bones are hammer, anvil and stirrup
42
Where are the auditory receptors located? How are they stimulated?
Auditory receptors know as hair cells lie between the basilar membrane e of the cochlea on one side and the tectoral membrane on the other.
Vibrations in the fluid of the cochlea displace the hair cells
A hair cell responds within used to displacements as small as 10^-10 or 0.1 nanometer. Thereby opening ion channels in its membranes=>excites the cells of the auditory nerve (part of the 8th cranial nerve)
43
What led to the downfall of the frequency theory of pitch discrimination in its simple form?
Frequency theory-the basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with a sound, causing auditory nerve axons to produce action potential. at same frequency. Downfall is that the refractory period of a neuron is typically about 1/1000 sec so max firing of a neuron is about 1000Hz
44
What is the volley theory?
auditory nerve as a whole produces voles of impulses for sounds up to about 4000 per sec (even though no axon approaches that frequency)
The auditory cells must time their imposes quite precisely
-they fire slightly out of phase with one another so when combine a greater frequency of sound can be encoded
45
What observation led to the downfall of the place theory as originally stated?
place theory - basilar membrane resembles strings of a piano in that each membrane is tunes to a specific frequency. Therefor e each frequency only activated the hair cells at only one place along the basilar membrane
Downfall-various parts of the basil membrane are bound together too tightly to resonate on its own.
46
What is the current compromise between the place and frequency theories of pitch discrimination
modification of both theories
-low frequency-basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with sour waves (frequency theory)
and auditory nerve axons generate one action potential wave
Soft sounds activate fewer neurons, stronger sounds activate more
Higher frequencies-dint fire at everyone neurons fire out of synch of one another
47
At which end of the cochlea is the basilar membrane the stiffest?
the base
48
Describe the location and function of the primary auditory cortex
Location is the superior temporal cortex (above ear)
| -function advance processing of sound-spatial response of a sound
49
What are the preferred stimuli for cells in the secondary auditory cortex
auditory memory
| impt role in sound localization and analysis of complex sounds
50
How do the dorsal and ventral pathways of analysis in the auditory cortex compare with those in the visual system?
very similar-strongly parallels visual cortex
| Also have what (patterns) and where (location of sounds) pathway
51
For which type of deafness can one hear one's own voice, though external sounds are heard poorly?
Conductive/middle ear deafness
| have normal cholea and auditory nerve they can hear their own voice
52
For what type of deafness is hearing impaired for a limited range of frequencies?
nerve deafness or inner ear deafness
Results from damage to cochlea, the hair cells or auditory nerve
-it can be confined only to a certain part and you have only hearing loss at certain frequencies
53
What are some causes of nerve deafness?
nerve deafness-inadequiate oxygen to brain during birth , def activity of thyroid, MS and meningitis and exposure to loud noises
54
What are some causes of conductive deafness
diseases
| abnormal bone growth
55
For which frequencies is the "sound shadow" method of localization best? Why?
best for 2000-3000 Hz lower frequencies are less accurate
56
what characteristic of sound is necessary to be able to localize sounds on the basis of the difference in time arrival? are some frequencies easier to localize on this basis than others?
a sound coming from one side reaches the closer ear 600 microsecs before the other
most useful sudden onset
57
Describe the basis of localization on the basis of phase difference. For which frequencies is it most effective?
every sound wave has phases with two consecutive peaks 360 defgrees apart
wanes in phase, 45 degrees, 90 degrees or 180 degrees out of phase most effective for low frequencies
58
Which method of sound localization's best for a species with a small head and why
difference in loudness is easier for s species with a small head cause both ears are so close together
59
What are the main parts of the vestibular organ?
vestibular organs are adjacent to the choclea and monitors movements and directs compensatory moments of your eyes
Main parts: saccule, utricle, and three semicircular calans
60
What are otoliths and their function
otoliths are Ca Carbonate particles which lie next to the hairs, when the head tilts in different directions the otoliths push against the hairs and excite them
61
What are the semicircular canals? How do they differ from the otolith organs?
three orientated in perpendicular panes are filled with jelly like substances and lined with hair cells
Acceleration of the head at any angle causes the 'jelly' to push agains the hairs
62
list the somatosensory receptors and their probable functions
free nerve endings-near base of hairs and elsewhere in skin-pain warmth cold
hair follicle receptors-hair covered skin-movement of hairs
meissner's corpuscles-hairless areas-sudden displacement of skin, low frequency vibrations flutter
pacinian corpuscles--low frequency vibrations light touch
merkels disks-light touch
63
How many sets of of spinal nerves do we have?
```
Cervical-8 pairs
thoracic-12
lumbar-5
sacral-5
cocygeal-1
```
64
What is a dermatome?
the limited area that each spinal nerve innervates
65
Describe the loss of body sense that may accompany Alzheimers disease
Damage to somatosensory cortex impairs body perceptions
| -they have trouble putting on clothes and say pointing to say her elbow.
66
What is substance P? What sensation would be produced by injection of substance P into the spinal cord?
Pain
| substance P is a neuropeptide that is release when one experiences pain.
67
What is capsiacin? How does it work? What food contains capsaicin?
stimulates then decreases the intensity of pain signals
| it is contained in peppers.
68
What theory did Melzack and Wall propose to account for variations in pain responsiveness? What is its main principle?
gate theory: spinal cord neurons that receive messages from pain receptors also receive input form touch receptors and from axons defending from the brain to the other signals are supposed to "close" the gates.
69
What are endorphins?
endogenous morphine
released by the brain
pain killers
70
list he endorphins. which one increases pain, unlike the rest?
histamine increases pain.
71
List six lines of stimuli that can reduce pain
```
placebo
rubbing around "hurt part"
music that sends chill down your spine
sex decreases pain
enjoyable
non pain stimuli modify intensity of pain
```
72
What are the pros and cons of morphine analgesia in cases of serious pain?
morphine does not block the sharp pain of surgeons knife
| blocks the slower duller pain
73
Describe the labeled-line type of coding. Give and example
high pitched ring a bell once need flour
med pitch bell-need sugar
low pitch need eggs
ring faster needs more
Labelline line principle each receptor would respond to a limited range of stimuli and the meaning would depend entirely on which neurons are active.
74
Chemical senses:
| Describe the across-fiber pattern type of coding. Give an example.
each receptor responds to a wider range of stimuli and give responses by given axon means little except in comparison to what the axons are doing
eg. colour perception-perception of green requires stronger response by medium wavelength cones than the long and short wavelength cones
75
Where are the taste receptors located?
taste buds on the tongue
| not true taste receptors but rather modified skin cells
76
What is the relationship between taste buds and papillae
papillae on the surface of the tongue
| a given papillae contains unto 10/more tastebuds and each taste bud contains about 50 receptors
77
How can cross-adaptation be used to help determine the number of taste receptors?
cross adaptation is the reduced response to one fast after exposure to another
78
What are four major kinds of taste receptor? What additional kind may we have?
```
sweet
sour
salty
bitter
possibly MSG taste receptors
```
79
What are the mechanisms of activation of salty, sour, sweet, bitter and umami receptors
different chemicals exit dif receptors, they produce dif rhythms of action potentials.
For taste, the temporal pattern of the action potential is impt in addition to the # of action potentials
eg a neuron responds to all four dif types of fast but with dif patterns over time
e.g. response to NaCl fades rapidly whereas response to sucrose took longer to start but then remained steady
80
Describe the individual differences in taste of phenylthiocarbamate (PTC). What is the physiological basis of increased sensitivity in super tasters?
Most poeple referred to as tasters-taste low concentrations as bitter but many people are non-tasters fail to fast it exc at high concentrations
super tasters-highest sensitivity to all tastes and have the largest # of fungiform papillae near the tip of the tongue
81
Describe the changes in taste sensitivity that occur if the chorda tympani is anesthetized
inför rom receptors in the anterior 2/3rds of the tongue, travel to the brain along the chorda tympani- a branch of the 7th cranial nerve (facial nerve)
you wouldn't taste anything in the anterior part of the tongue but probably won't notice.
82
Which structures in the brain process taste information
insula (primary taste cortex)
83
What property is classified by the nucleus of the tractus solitaries of rats? Which area performs this function in monkeys?
taste nerves prject to the tracts solitrius of structure in the medulla-from here info branches out reaching the pons, the lateral hypothalamus, the amygdala, the ventral-posterior thalamus and two areas of the cerebral cortex.
84
Describe the olfactory receptor. Why is there a delay between inhaling a substance and smelling it?
neurons responsible for smell are olfactory cells which line the epithelium in the rear of the nasal air passages.
in mammals each olfactory cell has cilia that extends ithe cell body into the mucous surface of the nasal passage- olfactory receptors are located on the cilia
85
How are olfactory receptors similar to neurotransmitter receptors? How many olfactory receptor proteins are estimated to exitst in rodents, based on isolation of these proteins? in humans?
like metabotropic neurotransmitter receptors, each protein traverses the cell membrane seven times and responds to a chemical outside of the cell by triggering changes in a G. Protein inside the cell the G protein then provokes chemical activities that lead to an action potential
-humans have several 100 olfactory receptor potions, whereas rats and mice have thousands and they can tell more apart
86
What is the vomeronasal organ? What type of molecules doe it detect?
set of receptors located near, but separate from the olfactory receptors
specialzed to respond to pheromones-chemicals released by and animal that affects the behaviour of other members of the same species.
87
What are two functions pheromones that have been demonstrated in humans
attract mole-increase testosterone
| regularize mentrual cycles in females in relationship
