Chapter 8: Development Flashcards
1
Q
What is a zygote?
A
A fertilized ovum (egg cell) that travels to the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall.
2
Q
Name the three stages of prenatal development.
A
Germinal stage, embryonic stage, and fetal stage.
3
Q
What is the timeline for the 3 stages of prenatal development?
A
Germinal = first 2 weeks (from conception until implantation)
Embryonic = 3 (implantation)-8 week
Fetal = 9 weeks to birth
4
Q
What occurs during the germinal stage?
A
The zygote divides and travels to the uterus, where it implants in the uterine wall after about 6-8 days.
5
Q
What occurs during the embryonic stage?
A
Major body structures and organs develop, and sex differentiation (7th wk) begins.
6
Q
Difference b/w - Cephalocaudal Development & Proximodistal Development?
A
Cephalocaudal Development: Head grows first, followed by the rest of the body.
Proximodistal Development: Internal organs develop before limbs.
7
Q
What occurs during the fetal stage?
A
Further growth of the body and organ systems continues—especially the heart and lungs in the final three months—to allow the fetus to thrive outside the womb
8
Q
True or false: During the fetal stage, dramatic growth occurs, with the fetus gaining 2 kg and doubling in length in the final three months.
A
True
9
Q
Purpose of amniotic fluid?
A
This fluid provides protection, temperature regulation, and supports lung development.
10
Q
What is the purpose of the placenta?
A
It allows the exchange of nutrients and waste between mother and fetus without mixing their bloodstreams.
11
Q
What is a teratogen?
A
A harmful (or toxic) agent, such as a disease, a drug, a chemical, or radiation, that has the potential to cause birth defects or abnormalities to the developing fetus
12
Q
True or false: The effects of teratogens depend on the initiation, frequency, and intensity of use. Teratogens are most harmful during critical periods in prenatal development.
A
True
13
Q
Consumption and abuse of alcohol or other illicit drugs such as opioids during pregnancy can lead to prolonged developmental conditions. What are they?
A
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD): is caused by prenatal (embryonic stage) alcohol exposure, leading to:
- Slowed physical growth
- Facial abnormalities
- Heart defects
- Cognitive impairments
Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS): can be the result of withdrawal caused by exposure to certain substance exposure before birth. NAS includes tremors, poor feeding and sucking, vomiting, and hyperactive reflexes.
14
Q
True or false: Infants double their birth weight by about 5 months and triple it by their first birthday.
A
True
15
Q
How does an infant’s growth rate change after the second year?
A
After the second year, growth slows to about 5-8 cm per year until the adolescent growth spurt
16
Q
What is the rooting reflex?
A
A newborn’s tendency to turn its head toward stimuli on the cheek or mouth.
17
Q
What is the grasp reflex?
A
Grasping objects placed in their hands
18
Q
What is the Sucking Reflex?
A
Sucking objects that touch the lips.
19
Q
What is the Withdrawal Reflex?
A
Pulling away from painful stimuli.
20
Q
What is the Startle (Moro) Reflex?
A
Drawing up legs and arching the back in response to sudden noises or movement.
21
Q
What is the Palmar Reflex?
A
Grasping objects that press against the palms.
22
Q
What is the Babinski Reflex?
A
Fanning toes when the soles of the feet are stimulated.
23
Q
Why do pediatricians use these reflexes?
A
To assess babies’ neural functioning.
24
Q
Can environmental factors impact a child’s development?
A
Children have a genetic potential for growth, but environmental factors like nutrition and clean air can influence whether they reach that potential.
25
How does perceptual development progress in infancy?
Vision: Newborns can track light; by 4 months, they recognize faces & focus on distant objects.
Hearing: Recognizes mother’s voice from birth and reacts to speech.
Taste & Smell: Prefers sweet flavors and recognizes mother's scent.
26
True or false: Studies like DeCasper and Spence’s (1986) showed that infants recognized and preferred stories read by their mothers during pregnancy
True
Infants who had heard The Cat in the Hat while in the womb showed a preference for hearing it after birth over an unfamiliar story.
27
True or false: Newborns prefer their mother’s face over unfamiliar ones and are particularly drawn to human faces.
True
Infants show a preference for human faces over other visual stimuli (e.g., newsprint, patterns, or colored disks).
28
Why do babies like lullabies?
Low-pitched voices or singing soothe infants, explaining why lullabies help them sleep.
29
What is the sequence of motor development?
Simple movements (lifting head) progress to complex movements (walking).
30
At what age do infants typically say their first word?
Around one year old.
31
What is the 2yr explosion?
the moment when a toddler goes from learning one word a day (or every few days) to suddenly picking up as many as 10 words daily
32
What are the stages of grammar development among infants? (8, but focus on first 3)
1) Pre-linguistic stage (0-6 months)
2) Holophrase or 1-word phase (12-18 months)
3) Telegraphic Speech or 2-word stage (18-24 months)
4. Early Multi-Word Stage (24-30 months)
5) Complex Sentences and Grammatical Markers (30-36 months)
6) Early Syntactic Development (3-4 years)
7) Mature Grammatical Structures (4-5 years)
8) Refinement and Adult-like Grammar (5-7 years)
33
What are some of the prelinguistic vocalizations that infants make?
crying, cooing (pleasure) & babbling (even in deaf children)
34
By 9-10 months, babies begin to focus on the sounds used in their home environment and drop foreign sounds. Why is this significant?
They begin to focus on the sounds of their native language(s) and lose the ability to distinguish foreign sounds. This is significant because it helps them fine-tune their language skills, preparing them to understand and produce the words and sounds most relevant to their communication. It shows how early exposure to language shapes their linguistic development.
Ex: a baby raised in an English-speaking environment will start to ignore sounds like the rolled "r" in Spanish or the tonal differences in Mandarin.
35
What is holophrase?
It is the first linguistic utterance by children. It's a single word used to express complex meanings
May convey complex meanings, e.g., "mama" could mean "There goes Mama," "Come here, Mama," or "You are my mama."
36
What is Telegraphic Speech?
Toward the end of the second year, children begin using two-word sentences.
These sentences resemble telegrams by omitting "unnecessary" words (e.g., "Home Tuesday" for "I expect to be home on Tuesday").
Two-word sentences are grammatically correct, such as "Sit chair" (not "Chair sit")
37
What are the types of 2-word utterances?
can contain nouns/pronouns and verbs (e.g., "Daddy sit") or verbs and objects (e.g., "Hit ball").
38
What is overregularization?
the application of regular grammatical rules for forming inflections (e.g., past tense and plurals) to irregular verbs and nouns
Overregularization occurs when children apply regular grammatical rules to irregular verbs and nouns, leading to errors.
- Ex: children may say "I seed it" instead of "I saw it" or "Mommy sitted down" instead of "Mommy sat down."
39
True or false: by age six, children have a vocabulary of around 10,000 words.
True
40
Between ages seven to nine, children start understanding that words can have multiple meanings. What does this result in?
sparks an interest in riddles and jokes that require more complex language use.
41
What is adolescence? What does it involve?
the period of life bounded by puberty, recognized as the transition stage between childhood and adulthood and the assumption of adult responsibilities
It involves significant physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes.
42
What is the adolescent growth spurt?
A period of rapid growth lasting 2-3 years, during which:
- Boys grow 20-30 cm and gain muscle mass.
- Girls grow about 20 cm and develop more body fat.
43
What is puberty?
is the biological process where individuals develop the ability to reproduce. It involves hormonal changes, sexual maturation, and rapid physical growth.
44
What are secondary sex characteristics?
Features that distinguish males from females but are not directly involved in reproduction.
- Boys: Deeper voice, facial & body hair, increased muscle mass.
- Girls: Breast development, wider hips, increased body fat
45
What triggers puberty in males and females?
Males: Increased testosterone leads to growth of the testes, penis, and secondary sex characteristics.
Females: Puberty begins when body weight reaches ~45 kg, triggering estrogen production and menstruation.
46
What is menarche?
Menarche is a girl’s first menstrual period, usually occurring between ages 11-14.
Ovulation begins a few years after menarche, making pregnancy possible.
47
What happens to physical abilities in young adulthood (20-40 years)?
Peak physical condition:
- Strength, coordination, and reaction time are at their highest.
- Sensory abilities (vision, hearing, taste) are sharpest.
- Cardiovascular fitness and immune function are optimal.
Sexual Health -> Most people are sexually active and maintain arousal, erections, and lubrication with ease.
48
How is athletic performance in early adulthood?
- Some athletes (e.g., gymnasts) peak in their 20s.
- Others (e.g., weightlifters, endurance athletes) peak in their 30s.
49
What physical changes occur in middle adulthood (40-65 years)?
Gradual decline in physical abilities:
- Strength, flexibility, and reaction time decrease.
- Metabolism slows, leading to easier weight gain.
- Skin loses elasticity, leading to wrinkles.
50
What is Menopause?
Menstruation ends due to a decline in estrogen.
Occurs between late 40s and early 50s.
Symptoms: Hot flashes, sleep disturbances, mood swings.
51
What is osteoporosis?
Osteoporosis is a condition where bones become weak and brittle due to decreased bone mass.
More common in postmenopausal women due to lower estrogen levels.
Prevented by calcium, vitamin D, and weight-bearing exercise.
52
What is Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)?
HRTs are sometimes used to relieve symptoms like hot flashes and vaginal dryness and reduce osteoporosis risk, but they have associated risks.
53
What happens in late adulthood (65+ years)?
Physical changes:
- Bones become brittle, increasing fracture risk.
- Skin thins and loses elasticity, leading to wrinkles.
- Hearing and vision decline; more difficulty distinguishing high-pitched sounds.
- Sense of smell weakens, leading to a preference for spicier foods.
Cognitive & reflex changes:
- Response time slows, affecting activities like driving.
Weaker immune system, increasing susceptibility to illness.
54
Can sexual activity continue in late adulthood?
Yes! With good health, many adults maintain an active sex life.
Men may experience slower erections due to decreased testosterone.
Women may experience vaginal dryness after menopause
55
What is cognitive development?
The process of thinking, learning, reasoning, and understanding the world as children grow.
56
Who proposed the theory of cognitive development?
Jean Piaget.
57
What is a schema?
They refer to the ways children categorize and understand the world around them based on their experiences. As children interact with their environment, they build and modify these schemas to make sense of new information.
58
How are schemas built?
They are built through assimilation (incorporating new experiences into existing schemas) and accommodation (modifying schemas to fit new experiences).
Ex: a baby might develop a schema for "dog" after seeing a dog and learning its characteristics, like having fur and barking. Later, when the baby sees other animals with similar traits, they might use this schema to identify them as dogs, or they might adjust the schema to differentiate between a dog and other animals as they gather more information
59
What is assimilation in Piaget’s theory?
Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.
Ex: A child sees a cow and calls it a "dog" because both have four legs.
60
What is accommodation in Piaget’s theory?
Modifying a schema to fit new experiences.
Ex: A child learns that cows and dogs are different and creates a new "cow" schema.
61
What are Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?
Sensorimotor (0-2 years) – Learning through senses & movement.
Preoperational (2-7 years) – Symbolic thinking but egocentric & rapid language development.
Concrete Operational (7-12 years) – Logical thinking about concrete objects.
Formal Operational (12+ years) – Abstract & hypothetical reasoning.
62
Key characteristics of the sensorimotor stage?
Learning occurs through senses (seeing, touching) and motor actions (grasping, crawling).
63
What is object permanence, and when does it develop?
Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.
Develops around 8-12 months (sensorimotor stage)
Before this, infants believe that when an object is hidden, it is gone forever.
- Ex: Peek-a-boo game
64
How do infants progress from reflexes to intentional behavior?
| (3 types of circular reactions)
1) Primary circular reactions (1-4 months): Repeating actions for pleasure (e.g., sucking thumb).
2) Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months): Repeating actions that affect the environment (e.g., shaking a rattle).
3) Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months): Trial-and-error experimentation (e.g., dropping objects to see what happens).
65
What are the main cognitive abilities in the preoperational stage? (4)
Symbolic thinking → Using words, images, and pretend play.
Egocentrism → Inability to see things from another person’s perspective.
Animism → Belief that inanimate objects have feelings.
Lack of conservation → Struggle to understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance
66
What is egocentrism and what stage does it occur in?
Preoperational stage
A child’s inability to see things from another’s perspective.
- Ex: A child nods while on the phone, assuming the listener can see them.
67
What is the difference b/w animism & artificialism? What stage do they occur in?
Preoperational stage
Animism: The belief that inanimate objects have thoughts and feelings.
- Ex: "The sun is following me!" or "My teddy bear is sad."
Artificialism: is the belief that natural events are human-made.
- Ex: "The sky is blue because someone painted it."
68
What is conservation, and why do preoperational children struggle with it?
Conservation is the idea that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement. Preoperational children focus on appearance rather than logic.
69
What are the key developments in the concrete operational stage?
Logical thinking about concrete objects.
Mastery of conservation, reversibility, and classification.
70
What is reversibility and what stage does it occur in?
Understanding that actions can be undone or reversed.
Ex: Flattened clay can be reshaped into a ball.
Concrete operational stage
71
What is decentration? When does it happen?
Simultaneous focusing on more than one dimension of a problem, so that flexible, reversible thought becomes possible
- Ability to consider more than one aspect of a situation at once.
- Less ego-centric
Concrete Operational Stage
72
What abilities emerge in the formal operational stage?
Abstract thinking: Understanding hypothetical concepts.
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: Testing theories systematically.
Metacognition: Thinking about one’s own thinking.
73
How does hypothetical-deductive reasoning develop? What stage?
Adolescents form hypotheses and systematically test them, rather than relying on trial and error.
- Ex: "If I study 30 minutes a day, my grades might improve."
Formal operational stage
74
How does thinking become more flexible in the formal operational stage?
Teens can think beyond concrete objects, considering philosophical and moral questions.
Ex: Debating issues like justice, ethics, or politics
75
What are some criticisms of Piaget’s theory? (3)
1) Underestimated abilities (object permanence appears earlier than 8 months).
2) Development is more continuous than stage-based.
3) Cultural differences influence development.
76
What did Lev Vygotsky propose instead of Piaget’s stage theory?
Vygotsky emphasized social and cultural influences on cognitive development.
77
What is Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory?
emphasizes the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development, suggesting that children’s learning is deeply influenced by their social environment and the people they interact with, particularly adults and more skilled peers
78
What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?
The range of tasks a child can do with guidance but not yet independently.
- Learning is best when scaffolding (support from an expert) is provided.
Vygotsky emphasized that learning occurs most effectively within this zone.
79
What is scaffolding in learning?
Temporary support provided by a teacher or caregiver to help a child learn a new skill.
- Ex: A parent helping a child sound out words while learning to read. Over time, the child reads independently.
80
How does adolescent thinking differ from childhood thinking?
Adolescents transition from concrete operational thinking to formal operational thinking, allowing them to think abstractly, hypothetically, and critically.
81
What stage of Piaget’s theory occurs in adolescence?
The Formal Operational Stage (12+ years), where individuals develop abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking.
82
What is adolescent egocentrism?
A heightened self-awareness and belief that one’s thoughts and experiences are unique or the focus of others' attention.
83
What are the two key aspects of adolescent egocentrism?
Imaginary Audience → The belief that everyone is watching and judging them.
- Example: "Everyone will notice this tiny pimple!"
Personal Fable → The belief that their experiences are unique and they are invulnerable.
- Example: "No one understands me!" or "I won't get hurt if I drive recklessly."
84
How does adolescent reasoning lead to risk-taking behavior?
Because of the personal fable, adolescents may feel invincible, leading to:
- Risky behaviors like reckless driving or substance use.
- Ignoring potential consequences.
85
What is idealistic thinking in adolescence?
Adolescents compare reality to ideal possibilities and become more aware of societal issues like justice and fairness, sometimes leading to frustration or activism.
86
What is the difference between concrete and abstract thinking?
Concrete Thinking: Based on tangible, real-world experiences (e.g., "Dogs bark, so my pet dog will bark.").
Abstract Thinking: Thinking about hypothetical, philosophical, or theoretical concepts (e.g., "What would happen if we had no government?").
87
When does self-consciousness peak?
13 yrs old
88
Adult vs adolescent thinking
Adolescents: Think in black-and-white, rigid ways (e.g., "That law is unfair, so we should get rid of it.").
Adults: Consider multiple perspectives, recognizing gray areas (e.g., "That law is unfair, but it helps in some situations.").
89
What is postformal thought?
Postformal thought is a stage of adult reasoning where individuals:
- Accept ambiguity and complexity.
- Make decisions based on practical rather than idealistic thinking.
- Recognize that problems may not have one clear answer.
90
Does cognitive ability decline in adulthood?
It depends on the type of intelligence:
- Crystallized Intelligence (knowledge from experience) increases with age.
- Fluid Intelligence (problem-solving & processing speed) declines after young adulthood.
91
What is crystallized intelligence?
Crystallized intelligence refers to accumulated knowledge and facts gained from experience.
-Ex : A historian’s knowledge about world events.
Remains stable or improves with age.
92
What is fluid intelligence?
Fluid intelligence refers to problem-solving abilities and the ability to learn new things quickly.
- Example: Solving puzzles or learning new technology.
Peaks in young adulthood and declines in later adulthood.
93
How does expertise affect cognitive functioning in adulthood?
Experts compensate for cognitive decline by using their experience and deeper knowledge. Example: A doctor in their 60s may not process information as fast but can diagnose conditions more effectively due to pattern recognition.
94
How does memory change with age?
Episodic Memory (personal experiences) declines first.
- Example: Forgetting details of a vacation.
Procedural Memory (skills like riding a bike) remains stable.
Semantic Memory (facts, general knowledge) remains strong.
95
What are the main cognitive challenges in late adulthood? (3)
1) Slower processing speed – Longer time to react or recall information.
2) Difficulty with divided attention – Harder to multitask.
3) Declining working memory – Harder to hold and manipulate information in the short term.
96
What is Alzheimer's disease?
Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive brain disorder characterized by memory loss, language difficulties, and cognitive decline.
The most common form of dementia.
Affects ~1% of people over 65+.
More common in women than men.
97
How can older adults slow cognitive decline? (3)
Cognitive Stimulation – Reading, learning new skills, doing puzzles.
Physical Activity – Exercise improves blood flow to the brain.
Social Engagement – Staying socially active helps mental function.
98
What is wisdom, and how does it develop?
Wisdom refers to deep understanding and judgment gained from life experience.
Older adults often make better life decisions due to emotional regulation and perspective-taking.
99
How does creativity change with age?
Creativity remains strong in later life, with some individuals producing their best work in old age:
- ex: Picasso painted in his 90s.
100
What is the activity theory of aging?
Suggests that life satisfaction is linked to staying active and socially engaged in later life.
Criticism: Not all older adults can remain active.
101
What is the socioemotional selectivity theory?
Proposed by Laura Carstensen, this theory suggests that as people age, they:
- Prioritize meaningful relationships over superficial ones.
- Reduce social circles but invest more in close family and friends.
102
What is moral development?
Moral development refers to the process by which individuals learn to differentiate right from wrong, develop a sense of justice, and form ethical values over time.
103
Who was Lawrence Kohlberg?
Kohlberg was a psychologist who expanded on Piaget’s ideas and proposed a three-level, six-stage model of moral reasoning based on ethical dilemmas.
104
What is the Heinz Dilemma?
It's a hypothetical story where a man named Heinz considers stealing a drug to save his dying wife.
Kohlberg analyzed people's reasoning behind their responses.
105
What are Kohlberg’s 3 levels of moral development?
Preconventional Morality (Childhood - Age 9)
Conventional Morality (Adolescence & Most Adults)
Postconventional Morality (Rare, Seen in Some Adults)
106
What are Kohlberg’s 6 stages of moral development?
Preconventional Level (Stages 1 and 2):
- Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment)
- Stage 2 (Self-Interest and Exchange)
Conventional Level (Stages 3 and 4):
- Stage 3 (Interpersonal Relationships and Conformity)
- Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order)
Postconventional Level (Stages 5 and 6):
- Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights)
- Stage 6 (Universal Ethical Principles)
107
What is preconventional morality? (lvl 1)
Moral reasoning is based on self-interest, rewards, and punishments rather than internalized values.
108
What are the two stages in preconventional morality?
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment – "Right" is what avoids punishment.
- Example: A child does not steal because they don’t want to get spanked.
Stage 2: Self-Interest & Exchange (Instrumental Relativist) – "Right" benefits the individual.
- Example: A child shares their toy only if they get a toy in return.
109
What is conventional morality?
Moral reasoning is based on societal rules, laws, and the desire for approval from others.
110
What are the two stages in conventional morality?
Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships (Good Boy/Nice Girl) – "Right" pleases others.
- Example: A teenager volunteers because their friends admire them for it.
Stage 4: Law and Order (Maintaining Social Order) – "Right" follows the law & social rules.
- Example: Heinz shouldn’t steal because stealing is illegal.
111
What is postconventional morality?
Moral reasoning is based on higher ethical principles rather than just social rules or self-interest.
112
What are the two stages in postconventional morality?
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights – "Right" considers laws but prioritizes justice and human rights.
- Example: Heinz should steal the drug because human life is more important than property rights.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles – "Right" is based on abstract principles like justice, equality, and human dignity.
- Example: A person opposes slavery even if it is legal.
113
What are the main critiques of Kohlberg’s theory? (4)
- Focuses too much on justice & ignores emotions like empathy and care.
- Biased toward Western, individualistic cultures.
- Stages may not be universal or occur in a strict order.
- Few people reach Stage 6; morality is often more situational.
114
Who was Carol Gilligan, and what did she criticize about Kohlberg’s theory?
Gilligan argued that Kohlberg’s theory was biased toward men because it emphasized justice over care and relationships, which women might prioritize in moral decision-making.
115
What are Gilligan’s three levels of moral reasoning?
Level 1: Selfish Morality – Focus on individual survival and self-interest.
- Example: A child refuses to share because they want the toy.
Level 2: Conventional Care – Focus on being selfless and putting others first.
- Example: A woman stays in an unhappy marriage to keep her family together.
Level 3: Integrated Care – Balancing self-care and caring for others.
- Example: A woman leaves an abusive relationship, recognizing she deserves respect.
116
How does Gilligan’s theory differ from Kohlberg’s?
Kohlberg (Justice-Based Morality)
- Focuses on justice, rules, and rights
- More common in men
- Morality = Fairness & abstract principles
Gilligan (Care-Based Morality)
- Focuses on care, compassion, and relationships
- More common in women
- Morality = Compassion & social connection
117
How do different cultures influence moral reasoning?
🔹 Individualistic cultures (e.g., USA, Canada): Emphasize personal rights & independence (Kohlberg’s model fits better).
🔹 Collectivist cultures (e.g., China, India): Emphasize community harmony & duty (Gilligan’s care-based model fits better).
118
How do parents and peers shape moral development?
Parents: Teach moral values through discipline, guidance, and role modeling.
Peers: Help develop social understanding through cooperation and negotiation.
119
How does moral reasoning change in adulthood?
Morality becomes more complex and situational.
Adults consider context, personal experience, and long-term consequences.
120
What is social development?
Social development refers to how individuals form relationships, interact with others, and understand social norms over their lifespan.
121
What are the key theories of social development?
The 3 major theories are:
1) Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory –> Lifespan social challenges.
2) Attachment Theory –> Early relationships shape later social skills.
3) Parenting Styles (Baumrind) –> Different approaches to raising children.
122
Who was Erik Erikson?
Erikson was a psychologist who proposed an 8-stage theory of psychosocial development, where individuals face different social challenges throughout life.
123
What is an "ego conflict" in Erikson’s theory?
Each stage of life presents a social challenge (ego conflict) that must be resolved for healthy psychological growth.
124
What are Erikson's 8 stages of psychosocial development?
1) Trust vs. mistrust
2) Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
3) Initiative vs. Guilt
4) Industry vs. Inferiority
5) Identity vs. Role Confusion
6) Intimacy vs. Isolation
7) Generativity vs. Stagnation
8) Integrity vs. Despair
125
What is the 1st stage in Erikson's theory? Challenge & strength developed?
Trust vs. Mistrust:
- Infancy (0-1 year)
- Infants develop trust if caregivers are responsive and loving; they develop mistrust if neglected.
- Key strength developed = Hope (A sense of security in the world)
126
What is the 2nd stage in Erikson's theory? Challenge & strength developed?
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
- Early Childhood (1-3 years):
- Children strive for independence (autonomy), but over-controlling parents may make them feel ashamed or doubtful about their abilities.
- Strength developed = willpower -> Confidence in self-sufficiency
127
What is the 3rd stage in Erikson's theory? Challenge & strength developed?
Initiative vs. Guilt:
- Preschool (3-6 years)
- Children begin taking initiative in activities. Encouragement fosters confidence; discouragement leads to guilt.
- Strength developed = Purpose –> Ability to plan and take initiative.
128
What is the 4th stage in Erikson's theory? Challenge & strength developed?
Industry vs. Inferiority:
- School Age (6-12 years)
- Children develop skills and take pride in their accomplishments (industry). If they fail or are criticized, they feel inferior.
- Strength developed = Competence –> Confidence in abilities.
129
What is the 5th stage in Erikson's theory? Challenge & strength developed?
Identity vs. Role Confusion:
- Adolescence (12-18 years)
- Teens explore who they are; failure to form a stable identity leads to confusion.
- Strength developed = Fidelity –> Commitment to identity, beliefs, and values.
130
What is the 6th stage in Erikson's theory? Challenge & strength developed?
Intimacy vs. Isolation:
- Young Adulthood (18-40 years)
- Forming close, meaningful relationships. Failure to do so results in loneliness.
- Strength developed = Love –> Deep, committed relationships.
131
What is the 7th stage in Erikson's theory? Challenge & strength developed?
Generativity vs. Stagnation:
- Middle Adulthood (40-65 years):
- Contributing to future generations through work, parenting, or social involvement. If not, one may feel stagnant or purposeless.
- Strength developed = Care –> Concern for others and the future.
132
What is the 8th stage in Erikson's theory? Challenge & strength developed?
Integrity vs. Despair:
- Late Adulthood (65+ years)
- Reflecting on one’s life. Satisfaction leads to integrity, while regret leads to despair.
- Strength developed = Wisdom –> Acceptance of life and mortality.
133
What is attachment?
Attachment is the emotional bond between a child and caregiver that influences future relationships.
134
Who were the 3 key researchers in attachment theory?
John Bowlby – Proposed that attachment is an innate survival mechanism.
Mary Ainsworth – Identified different attachment styles using the Strange Situation Experiment.
Harry Harlow – Showed the importance of contact comfort in attachment.
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Who was John Bowlby, and what did he propose?
Bowlby was a British psychologist who developed attachment theory, arguing that:
- Attachment is biologically programmed for survival.
- Infants form internal working models (mental frameworks for future relationships).
- Early attachment experiences influence lifelong social relationships.
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What is the strange situation?
In this procedure, infants are observed in a series of separations and reunions with their caregiver, along with the introduction of a stranger. The infants' responses to these scenarios reveal their attachment styles.
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What are the four types of attachment styles?
Secure Attachment – Child is upset when caregiver leaves but easily comforted upon return.
Avoidant Attachment – Child avoids caregiver and is emotionally distant.
Resistant (Ambivalent) Attachment – Child is very distressed when caregiver leaves and resists comfort.
Disorganized Attachment – Child shows confused or contradictory behavior, often linked to trauma
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What is the most common attachment style?
What does the child do? The parent? Outcomes?
Secure Attachment (Healthy Attachment, 60-70%)
What does the child do?
- Distressed when caregiver leaves.
- Easily comforted when caregiver returns.
- Explores environment confidently.
What does the caregiver do?
- Consistently responsive to child’s needs.
- Provides comfort and security.
Outcomes for child’s future relationships?
- High self-esteem.
- Strong social skills.
- Trusting relationships.
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What is avoidant attachment style?
What does the child do? The parent? Outcomes?
Insecure attachment style, 15%
What does the child do?
- Little distress when caregiver leaves.
- Avoids caregiver upon return.
- Prefers independence, but struggles with emotional closeness.
What does the caregiver do?
- Emotionally distant or unresponsive.
- Discourages emotional expression.
Outcomes for child’s future relationships?
- Struggles with intimacy.
- Avoids emotional dependence.
- May appear self-sufficient but emotionally distant.
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What is ambivalent attachment style?
What does the child do? The parent? Outcomes?
Insecure attachment, 10-15%
What does the child do?
- Extremely distressed when caregiver leaves.
- Clingy but also resistant to comfort when caregiver returns.
- Anxiety about caregiver’s availability.
What does the caregiver do?
- Inconsistent caregiving – sometimes responsive, sometimes neglectful.
- Child never knows what to expect.
Outcomes for child’s future relationships?
- Fear of abandonment.
- Clingy or overly dependent in relationships.
- Prone to anxiety.
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What is disorganized attachment style?
What does the child do? The parent? Outcomes?
Most Insecure, 5%
What does the child do?
- Contradictory behaviors (freezing, running toward caregiver but then avoiding them).
- Appears confused or fearful.
What does the caregiver do?
- Abusive or neglectful behavior.
- Child experiences fear but also depends on the caregiver.
Outcomes for child’s future relationships?
- Difficulty trusting others.
- Higher risk of mental health issues.
- May struggle with emotion regulation.
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What did Harry Harlow study?
Harlow studied rhesus monkeys to understand attachment, using wire and cloth "mothers."
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What were Harlow’s findings? How did Harlow’s research impact our understanding of attachment?
Monkeys preferred cloth mothers (comfort) over wire mothers (food).
- Contact comfort is more important than just providing food for attachment.
It proved that love, comfort, and security are crucial for healthy development, not just food.
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What are Baumrind’s four parenting styles?
Authoritative – Strict but warm; encourages independence. (Best outcomes)
Authoritarian – Strict, little warmth; demands obedience. (Leads to anxiety/aggression)
Permissive – Few rules, high warmth; little discipline. (Leads to impulsivity)
Uninvolved – Neglectful and distant. (Worst outcomes: poor emotional regulation)
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Authoritarian
Children tend to be withdrawn, aggressive, or overly obedient and struggle with social and academic performance.
These children may lack self-esteem and often have difficulty making decisions or handling stress.
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Authoritative
They tend to be self-reliant, socially competent, and have higher self-esteem and achievement motivation.
These children typically perform well academically, are emotionally stable, and develop strong moral reasoning.
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Permissive
As they grow older, these children often lack self-control and may struggle academically or with behavioral problems
They are more likely to engage in delinquency and poor academic performance during the teenage years.
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Uninvolved
Children tend to perform poorly in school and may exhibit behavioral problems.
They are at higher risk for delinquency and may seek out negative peer groups, engage in substance abuse, and experience low academic success.
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Who was James Marcia, and how did he expand Erikson’s theory?
Marcia identified 4 identity statuses based on whether a teen has explored and committed to an identity.
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What are Marcia’s four identity statuses?
Identity Achievement – Explored options and committed to an identity.
- Example: A teen tries different careers and majors, then chooses one confidently.
* Most ideal -> leads to a strong, stable sense of self and confidence in social relationships.
Identity Moratorium – Actively exploring but not yet committed.
- Example: A teen considers different political beliefs but hasn’t decided on one.
Identity Foreclosure – Commitment without exploration.
- Example: A teen adopts their parents’ religion or career choice without questioning it.
Identity Diffusion – No commitment or exploration.
- Example: A teen shows no interest in career planning or personal beliefs.
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The development of identity in adolescence encompasses various facets. What are they?
| (3)
Sexual identity -> Deciding on one’s sexual orientation and the kind of sexual relationships to pursue.
Political beliefs -> Aligning oneself with political ideologies, like being liberal or conservative.
Religious beliefs -> Developing a relationship with religion and faith.
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What is emerging adulthood?
A period of development, roughly spanning the ages of 18–25, when young adults sort through identity and role issues and create life plans
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What are Kübler-Ross’s five stages of dying?
Denial – "This can’t be happening."
Anger – "Why me?"
Bargaining – "If I survive, I’ll be a better person."
Depression – Feeling hopeless.
Acceptance – Coming to terms with mortality.
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What is thanatology?
The study of death and dying, focusing on emotional, ethical, and psychological aspects of end-of-life care.
