Ch 1: What is psychology? Flashcards
1
Q
Psychology definition
A
the scientific study of behaviour & mental processing
2
Q
4 goals of scientific study in psychology
A
1) Describe -> Descriptions are used as the data for scientific discovery (ex: observation)
2) Explain -> used to understand the reasons behind thoughts/behaviour
3) Predict -> looking at when & why behaviour will happen & likelihood of it happening
4) Control -> manipulate/apply conditions
3
Q
Theories definition
A
Sets of hypothesized statements about relationships or principles that explain observed behaviours
4
Q
Critical thinking definition
A
Logical way of thinking in which we make evaluations, judgments, and assessments and draw conclusions about ideas, theories, and statements
5
Q
What are the principles of critical thinking? (8)
A
1) Be skeptical
2) Insist on evidence
3) Examine definitions of terms
4) Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments
5) Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence
6) Consider alternate interpretations of research evidence
7) Don’t oversimplify
8) Don’t overgeneralize
Important to ensure theories are fully assessed and evaluated scientifically.
6
Q
What’s the difference b/w psychologists & psychiatrists?
A
psychologists have a graduate degree (bachelors) and masters while psychiatrists have a medical degree (they can prescribe meds)
7
Q
introspection definition
A
careful examination of one’s own thoughts and emotions—to achieve self-knowledge
8
Q
who is the father of psychology?
A
Wilhelm Wundt
9
Q
Difference b/w basic (pure) research & applied research
A
Basic (pure) research: research conducted purely by curiosity and for research’s sake to expand knowledge (no real goal behind it)
Applied research: research conducted to answer questions about and find solutions to real-world personal or social problems
10
Q
What is structuralism?
A
It is the school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements—sensations, feelings, and images—that combine to form experience
it breaks down conscious experiences down into sensations (taste), feelings (emotional responses) & images (memories)
subjective + objective = whole experience
11
Q
Who founded structuralism?
A
Wilhelm Wundt
12
Q
What is functionalism?
A
It is the school of psychology that emphasizes how the mind functions to help us adapt to our environment
relationship b/w conscious experiences & behaviour
13
Q
Who founded functionalism?
A
William James
14
Q
Which school of psychology was influenced by Charles Darwin?
A
Functionalism
influenced by his survival of the fittest theory
adaptive behaviour patterns are learned and maintained (ex: maladaptive are dropped & adapted are repeated & become habits)
15
Q
difference b/w how structuralists & functionalists think
A
Structuralists ask, “What are the pieces that make up thinking and experience?”
Functionalists ask, “How do behaviour and mental processes help us adapt to our environment?”
16
Q
What is behaviourism?
A
It’s the school of psychology that focuses on the study of OBSERVABLE behaviour and studies relationships between stimuli and responses
17
Q
Who founded behaviourism?
A
John B Watson
18
Q
What are the 2 most well-known behaviourists?
A
Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning) -> dog & food
B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning) -> skinner box w/ rats
They both believed ppl did things unconsciously (situations, experiences, rewards, etc)
19
Q
What is Gestalt psychology?
A
it’s the school of psychology that emphasizes the tendency to organize perceptions into wholes and to integrate separate stimuli into meaningful patterns
20
Q
Who founded Gestalt Psychology?
A
Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler (prominent in Germany)
21
Q
What does gestalt mean?
A
pattern/organized whole
22
Q
What did gestalt focus on?
A
Focused on perception and on how it influences thinking and problem solving
23
Q
What is the clear difference b/w structuralists and gestalt psychology?
A
Structuralists focused on emotions, thoughts and emotions
Gestalt claimed that we cannot explain human perceptions, emotions, or thought processes in terms of basic units. We have to look at the whole picture
24
Q
Context is key for which school of psychology?
A
Gestalt
25
Which school of psychology believes in a "flash of insight?"
Gestalt
Wolfgang Köhler’s research with chimpanzees & their ability to problem-solve and get to the bananas
People too often manipulate the elements of problems until we group them in such a way that we believe we will be able to reach a goal.
26
What is psychoanalysis?
The school of psychology that emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behaviour
27
According to psychoanalysis, is this true or false: "much of our lives are governed by unconscious ideas/impulses that originate in childhood conflicts"
True
Ppl are motivated by satisfying impulses (including negative ones)
28
What is psychotherapy?
Aims to help patients gain insight into many of their unshakable conflicts and to find socially acceptable ways of expressing wishes and gratifying needs.
29
Who is the founder of psychoanalysis?
Sigmund Freud
30
What was Freud's main notion?
Human beings are motivated by unconscious (primal) sexual and repressed drives which contributes greatly to how we understand personality
31
Which theory has the slogan: “The whole is greater than the sum of it’s parts?”
Gestalt
They saw our perceptions as wholes that give meaning to parts, rather than just the individual parts (whole is greater than the sum of its parts)
32
Of the 5 schools of psychology (structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, gestalt & psychoanalysis), which focused on how animals learn through conditioning and
reinforcement
behaviourism
33
Of the 5 schools of psychology (structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, gestalt & psychoanalysis), which looks at a whole- human perspective and perceptions based on context
Gestalt
34
Of the 5 schools of psychology (structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, gestalt & psychoanalysis), which relied on introspection and looks at the mind
as having 3 elements
structuralism
35
Of the 5 schools of psychology (structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, gestalt & psychoanalysis), which emphasizes how the mind adapts to the environment
Functionalism
36
Of the 5 schools of psychology (structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, gestalt & psychoanalysis), which emphasizes the
unconscious mind and internal conflict
psychoanalysis
37
Who was the first woman president of the APA
Mary Whilton Calkins
38
What woman helped found the theories of attachment (strange situation
test)
Mary Ainsworth
39
Which woman wrote a book on animal behaviour; influenced fields of sensation and perception
Margaret Washburn
40
Who is the daughter of Freud and influenced field of child psychology
Anna Freud
41
Which woman did lots of research on gender within psychology
Sandra Bem
42
Who was the first feminist founder of psychology; refuted Freud’s theories
Karen Horney
43
What is the biopsychosocial model?
A model of psychology that provides an integrated approach to understanding behaviour and mental processes by including aspects of other broad perspectives (biological, psychological, and social)
44
What are the different perspective in the biopsychosocial model? (7)
1) Evolutionary perspective
2) Biological perspective
3) Cognitive perspective
4) Humanistic-existential perspective
5) Psychoanalytical perspective
6) Learning perspective
7) Sociocultural perspective
45
What is the evolutionary perspective?
Evolutionary psychologists focus on the evolution of behaviour and mental processes
Ex: human behaviour (aggression) can be hereditary
46
What is the biological perspective?
Seek to find links b/w brain activity, hormones & heredity with things like behaviour & mental processes
Ex: research on criminal behaviour, psychological disorders such as schizophrenia, and how genetics and behaviour relate.
47
What is the cognitive perspective?
The school of psychology that focuses on understanding how we process (“think about”) information from our environment such as sensation and perception, memory, intelligence, language, thought, and problem solving
Ex: brain imaging tech can show what our brain is doing when we do things like read, sleep, etc
48
What is the Humanistic–Existential Perspective
It focuses on how individuals strive toward “self-actualization” and satisfaction (this assumption suggests ppl are inherently good and strive to be better ppl for themselves and the world)
Humanism = stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment and the central roles of consciousness, self-awareness, and decision making
Existentialism = views ppl as free to choose and as being responsible for choosing ethical conduct
49
What is the learning perspective?
Environmental influences and the learning of habits through repetition and reinforcement.
50
What is the social-cognitive theory?
It is a school of psychology in the behaviourist perspective that includes cognitive factors in the explanation and prediction of behaviour (formerly termed social learning theory)
51
What does the social cognitive theory suggest?
People can modify and create their environments, rather than just passively learning in them
52
True or false: "Social-cognitive theorists note that people engage in intentional learning by observing others"
True
53
What is the sociocultural perspective?
It focuses on understanding the experiences of ethnic groups and their diversity in Canada to highlight the impact of social, political, and economic factors on human behaviour and development.
54
True or false: we cannot fully understand people’s behaviour and mental processes without reference to their diversity and culture
True
55
Which perspective from this model suggests that:
“human social behaviour, such as aggressive behaviour and mate selection, has a hereditary basis. People may be influenced by social rules, cultural factors, even personal choice, but evolutionary psychologists believe that inherited tendencies move us in certain directions—in Darwin’s explanation, for survival”
Evolutionary
56
You are working with Clara. Clara has recently been diagnosed with schizophrenia. She has been encouraged by her doctor to take medications to help manage her symptoms. You want to provide empathy and validation and so, you help to explore the neurotransmitters that may be affected by a diagnosis of schizophrenia and how medication can help to stabilize that. Which perspective are you working from?
Biological
57
You are working with a client named Jon. Jon tells you that he is struggling with anxious thoughts and has recently experience a panic attack that was very distressing. You begin to explain to Jon that the way we think and how we perceive the world around us can affect our mental state (CBT). You further seek to explore with Jon what he identifies as triggers in his environment that may lead to his anxious thoughts. Which perspective are you working from?
Cognitive
58
What is the definition of the scientific method?
A systematic process of conducting research through inquiry and analysis
59
What is the main benefit of the scientific method?
It allows researchers to test their research questions or hypothesis & draw conclusions based on their findings
60
What is a hypothesis?
It is a specific prediction about behaviour or mental processes that is tested through research
61
What are the steps taken after a hypothesis is posed?
1) Most questions are written as hypothesis and these are then tested through research.
2) We then observe & analyze the data we observed.
3) We can then draw conclusions related to our research question or hypothesis.
4) Depending on the conclusions, we may need to modify the hypothesis that was studied or provide additional info to support a theory.
62
What are the 3 descriptive methods of research?
1) case studies
2) survey research
3) naturalistic observation
63
What is a case study?
It is an in-depth analysis or biography of an individual or small group that may be obtained through interviews, questionnaires, and psychological tests
64
What are the pros and cons of using a case study?
Pros:
- can be used to investigate rare cases
- can be useful when trying to gain info that can't be obtained objectively
Cons:
- May be inaccurate (distortion, lying or misinterpreting)
- Biased (experimenter bias)
65
What is the main goal of a case study?
Be able to uncover details of human behaviour and understand the potential nature of behaviour in situations
66
How is the info for case studies gathered? (3)
observation, interviews questionnaires or psych tests
67
What is experimenter bias?
Interviewers may also have certain expectations and subtly encourage participants to fill in gaps in ways that are consistent with these expectations
68
What is survey research?
A descriptive method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people answer questions about their attitudes, beliefs, or behaviour
69
How is the info gathered for survey research?
It is done through questionnaires or interviews to learn about behaviour, attitudes, and beliefs that can’t be observed in a natural setting or studied experimentally
70
What are the pros and cons of survey research?
Pros:
- Effective way to collect a large amount of data
Cons:
- Can be inaccurate
- Social desirability
71
What is social desirability?
Many people involved in research studies tend to answer the questions or tell the interviewer what they think the interviewer would like to hear and not what they themselves truly think
72
What is naturalistic observation?
A descriptive method of scientific investigation in which humans and animals are (unobtrusively) observed in their natural environments
73
What is the main goal of naturalistic observation?
To help researchers understand how we behave under “normal” circumstances (ex: Jane Goodall
74
What are the pros and cons of naturalistic observation?
Pros:
- Observing behaviour where it happens (in the field)
Cons:
- Bias (researcher & participant-> they may behave differently if they know they are being watched)
75
How can we avoid sampling problems? (3)
1) Representative sample
2) Random sample
3) Stratified sample
76
What is a research sample?
the subset of a larger population of people that is being studied
77
What is a representative sample?
A sample of the population being studied that is proportionate to (representative of) the larger group, including subgroups that are part of the larger population
78
What is the benefit of using representative sampling?
Avoids selection bias
79
What is selection bias?
A source of bias that may occur in research findings when participants choose for themselves (self-select) a certain treatment in a research study
80
What is a random sample?
It is a sample drawn so that each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected to participate
81
What is a stratified sample?
A sample drawn so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionately in the sample
Ex: suppose that 13% of the Canadian population is unemployed. A stratified sample would thus need to include 13 percent unemployed.
82
What is the experimental method?
It's a scientific method that seeks to confirm cause-and-effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables
83
Why is the experimental method used?
Used to answer qs about cause & effect relationships
84
What is needed for an experiment to work? (3)
1) a sample of participants who receive a treatment (alcohol)
2) a sample of participants who do not receive a treatment (control group)
3) the participants are then observed carefully to determine whether the treatment makes a difference in their behaviour or not
85
What is the purpose of an experiment? (3)
1) manipulate one of more variables
2) measure the manipulated variable to see if it influences other variables
3) control as many other extraneous variables as possible
86
True or false: in order to draw conclusions about behaviour, experimenters have to control (manipulate, influence) the variables they are interested in to determine the causes of a particular behaviour
True
87
What is an independent variable (IV)
A variable that is manipulated by the researcher so that its effects may be observed in an experiment
88
What is a dependent variable (DV)?
A variable that is measured as an assumed effect of an independent variable in an experiment (measured result or outcome)
89
What is an experimental group?
in experiments, groups whose members obtain the treatment (independent variable)
90
What is a control group?
in experiments, groups whose members do not obtain the treatment (independent variable), while other conditions are held constant
91
What is the purpose of a control group?
Used to compare the results of the IV on the behaviour of participants (how they act sober & with some alcohol)
92
Ex: does alcohol increase aggression?
What is the IV & DV?
Participants are given an amount of alcohol and its effects are measured (i.e., aggression).
Alcohol = IV b/c the experimenter manipulates the alcohol presence so that its effects may be determined
Aggressive behaviour = dependent variable.
The amount of aggression is said to be DEPENDENT on how much alcohol is given to the participant.
93
Ex: does alcohol increase aggression?
What is the experimental group & control group?
Experimental group -> the participants exposed to the IV (alcohol)
Control group -> the participants NOT exposed to the IV
94
What is random assignment?
The assignment of participants to experimental and control groups on the basis of chance (for example, drawing names from a hat)
95
Why is random assignment important?
Controls selection bias & ensures the validity of research
96
Validity definition
It refers to how well an experiment measures (or tests) what it is intended to measure, such that the variables being measured truly cause the differences in the dependent variables
Random assignment can help with this
97
What is the placebo effect?
It occurs in an experiment when participants’ response to the independent variable (treatment) is attributed to their expectations of the treatment rather than the treatment itself
Ex: the participants tended to act in stereotypical ways when they believe they had been drinking alcohol.
98
What are 2 ways to avoid the placebo effect?
Blind & double blind study
99
What is a blind study?
A study in which participants are unaware of whether or not they have received a treatment
100
What is a double blind study?
A study in which neither the participants nor the observers know who has received the treatment
101
Define correlation
An association or relationship between variables, as we might find between height and weight or between study habits and school grades
102
True or false: correlation provides cause & effect conclusions
FALSE
103
When is correlation research used?
Used when factors cannot be manipulated (such as IQ) or are harmful to administer (such as stress).
In such cases, researchers rely on a correlation to determine the relationship between two or more variables.
104
What is a correlation coefficient?
It is a number between +1.00 and –1.00 that expresses the strength and direction (positive or negative) of the relationship between two variables
105
When is a correlation coefficient used?
Used to determine whether a relationship exists between something like intelligence and academic performance
106
True or false: The stronger the relationship (closer to +1.00 or –1.00), the better the prediction is
True
107
Tue or false: when examining the correlation coefficient between IQ tests & academic performances, there are no other confounding factors
False
There may be other confounding factors too (motivation, attendance, etc) which may influence the IV or DV
108
What are the ethical standards part of the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) intended to promote? (3)
1) individual dignity
2) human welfare
3) scientific integrity
109
The CPA provided steps for ethical decision making in psychology. What are the 4 principles?
1) Respect for the dignity of persons and people
- basic human rights, fair treatment, informed consent, respect & confidentiality
2) Responsible caring.
- maximizing benefits & minimizing harm
3) Integrity in relationships
- honesty & avoiding conflicts of interest
4) Responsibility to society.
110
Define informed consent
A participant’s agreement to participate in research after receiving information about the purpose of the study and the nature of the treatment
111
What is debriefing?
Providing participants with an explanation of their role in an experiment and explaining the purposes and methods of the research following completion of the study
