Ch 11: Personality Flashcards

Question

What is the "End of History Illusion"?

Answer 1

The "End of History Illusion" refers to people’s belief that they have reached the final stage of their personality and won’t change much in the future, despite having changed significantly in the past.

Answer 2

Behaviorists believe that personality is shaped by external, environmental factors rather than inherent traits. They focus on observable behaviors and how they are influenced by rewards and punishments in the environment.

Answer 3

John B. Watson: - Believed personality is shaped by environmental factors, not inherent traits. - "Give me a dozen healthy infants...and I’ll train them to become any specialist." B.F. Skinner: - Focused on reinforcement rather than introspection. - He believed that behavior could be shaped by rewards and punishments and rejected the study of internal mental processes. - His utopian society, Walden Two, demonstrated the role of early conditioning.

Answer 4

Behaviorism ignores personal freedom, choice, and self-direction. It overlooks situations where people may choose pain or hardship, such as sacrificing for others or even in extreme cases like suicide.

Answer 5

It emphasizes the cognitive processes underlying individual differences. Unlike behaviorism, which focuses solely on observable behavior and situational influences, social-cognitive theory suggests that people actively shape their own environment and that personal factors (e.g., values, expectancies) play a major role in behavior.

Answer 6

Albert Bandura developed social-cognitive theory.

Answer 7

"Reciprocal determinism" refers to the idea that behavior, personal factors (like emotions or knowledge), and situational factors (like rewards or punishments) influence each other in a continuous loop.

Answer 8

Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to succeed. People with high self-efficacy tend to have higher motivation and are more likely to pursue and achieve goals.

Answer 9

Observational learning is learning by watching others. It doesn't require direct reinforcement and highlights how people can acquire new behaviors simply by observing others' actions and the consequences of those actions.

Answer 10

Gender differences are not just biological but also learned through observation. Children observe and imitate gender-appropriate behaviors, with parents and peers reinforcing these behaviors.

Answer 11

Gender-schema theory suggests that children create mental schemas about gender and behave accordingly.

Answer 12

Children begin to understand gender roles as early as 24 months, adjusting their behavior based on what is culturally considered gender-appropriate.

Answer 13

Humanism emphasizes free choice, self-fulfillment, and ethical behavior. Humanists believe that individuals are motivated to realize their fullest potential (self-actualization) and that personal growth is a key part of personality development.

Answer 14

Self-actualization is the innate tendency to strive to realize one's fullest potential, which includes characteristics like clarity, peacefulness, sensitivity to others, and a healthy sense of humor. It involves taking risks and breaking free from routine.

Answer 15

Carl Rogers emphasized the importance of self-concept (how we view ourselves) and self-esteem (how we value ourselves). He believed that self-esteem is influenced by others' views, particularly parents, and that unconditional positive regard fosters healthy self-esteem.

Answer 16

Our impressions of ourselves, evaluating ourselves on various dimensions (e.g., good-bad, intelligent-unintelligent).

Answer 17

Each person has a unique POV for defining themselves and judging their worth.

Answer 18

Unconditional Positive Regard: - Acceptance of a person regardless of their behavior. Conditional Positive Regard: - Acceptance is contingent upon meeting certain expectations or standards, which can lead to conditions of worth (feeling valuable only when meeting others' expectations).

Answer 19

Client-centered therapy helps individuals get in touch with their true feelings, accept them, and act authentically. The goal is to align one's self-concept with their ideal self, reducing internal conflict and fostering personal growth.

Answer 20

The sociocultural perspective emphasizes the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and SES in personality formation. It explores how cultural values, norms, and expectations shape individual behaviors, personality traits, and mental processes.

Answer 21

Individualism: - People define themselves based on personal traits and prioritize individual goals. - Common in Western cultures (e.g., Canada, U.S.). Collectivism: - People define themselves based on relationships and group goals. - More common in non-Western cultures (e.g., Asia, Africa).

Answer 22

Canada’s multiculturalism leads to diverse cultural identities. Immigrants often balance their original culture with Canadian norms, which can create internal conflicts (e.g., between family expectations and personal goals). - These cultural values significantly influence individual personality development.

Answer 23

Acculturation is the process of adapting to a new, dominant culture while maintaining elements of one's original culture. Immigrants who balance both cultures (biculturalism) tend to experience higher self-esteem and better psychological well-being.

Answer 24

Assimilation: - Adopting the dominant culture and losing original cultural traits. Separation: - Retaining the original culture without adopting the new culture. Biculturalism: - Integrating both cultures, which is considered the most adaptive form of acculturation.

Answer 25

Unlike physical traits, personality is abstract and difficult to measure. Psychological tests must ensure validity (measuring what they’re supposed to measure), reliability (consistent results), and standardization (applicable across diverse groups).

Answer 26

The degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure Ex: the validity of a hyperactivity test can be checked by comparing it to teachers’ assessments of children’s hyperactivity.

Answer 27

the consistency or stability of test scores from one testing to another Ex: A reliable test should yield similar results if administered repeatedly, such as IQ tests, which should show consistency in scores over a person's development.

Answer 28

the process by which one obtains and organizes test scores from various population groups, so that the results of people completing a test can be compared to those of others of their sex, in their age group, and so on Standardization is vital for making comparisons, such as measuring intelligence relative to other individuals in the same age group.

Answer 29

Objective Tests: - Structured with clear, standardized answers (e.g., MMPI) - used to assess personality and psychological disorders. Projective Tests: - Open-ended, allowing individuals to project their unconscious thoughts onto ambiguous stimuli - Ex: Rorschach Inkblot Test, TAT

Answer 30

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a well-known objective test used to assess personality traits and psychological disorders. It includes validity scales to detect response biases (e.g., lie scale, infrequency scale & defensiveness scale) and clinical scales to assess mental health issues like depression and anxiety.

Answer 31

Projective tests use ambiguous stimuli (e.g., inkblots, pictures) to allow individuals to project their unconscious thoughts and emotions. These tests are often used to explore hidden motivations and unresolved conflicts, but their validity has been questioned.

Answer 32

Many online or pop-culture personality tests lack scientific rigor, and may not be valid or reliable. It’s essential to use professionally validated tests, especially for clinical or research purposes.