Chapter 8 Cognitive Information-Processing Approach Flashcards
Information-processing approach
Emphasizes that students manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it
Encoding
The process by which information is formed into memory
Automaticity
The ability to process information with little or no effort
Strategy construction
The discovery of a new procedure for processing information
Transfer
The application of previous experiences and knowledge to learning or problem solving in a new situation
Metacogniton
Cognition about cognition, or “knowing about knowing”. Being self aware about how you process information.
Memory
Interplay of encoding, storage, and retrieval of information over time.
Storage
The retention of information over time
Retrieval
The process of taking information out of storage
Attention
Concentrating and focusing mental resources
Rehearsal
The conscious repetition of information over time to increase the length of time that information stays in memory
Level of processing theory
The processing of memory occurs on a continuum from shallow to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory
Elaboration
The extensiveness of information processing involved in memory
Chunking
Grouping or “packing” information into “higher-order” units that can be remembered as single units.
Sensory memory
Holds information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant
Short-term memory(working memory)
A limited capacity memory stsrem in which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless the information is rehearsed or otherwise processed further
Memory span
The number of digits an individual can repeat back without error in a single presentation
Working memory
Three-part system that temporarily holds information as people perform tasks, helping them make decisions, solve problems, and comprehend language
Long-term memory
Type of memory that holds enormous amounts of information for a long period in a relatively permanent fashion
Atkinson-Shirffrin model
States that memory involves a sequence of three stages: sensory memory, short-term (working) memory, and long-term memory
Declarative memory
The conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated
Procedural memory
Knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations
Episodic memory
The retention of information about the where and when of life’s happenings
Semantic memory
Students general knowledge about the world
Network theories
Describe how information in mmemory is organized and connected
Schema theories
Theories that suggest when we reconstruct information, we fit it into information that already exists in our mind
Schema
Information, such as concepts, knowledge, and events that individuals already possess
Script
A schema for an event
Serial position effect
Recall is better for items at the beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle
Primacy effect
Items at the beginning of a list tend to be remembered
Recency effect
Items at the end of a list tend to be remembered
Encoding specificity principle
Associations formed at the time of encoding or learning tend to be effective retrieval cues
Recall
A memory task in which individuals must retrieve previously learned information
Recognition
A memory task in which individuals only have to identify (recognize) learned information
Cue-dependent forgetting
Retrieval failure caused by a lack of effective retrieval cues
Interference theory
Suggests we forget when other information gets in the way of what we are trying to remember vs. losing memories from storage
Decay theory
Suggests new learning involves the creation of a neurochemical “memory trace”, which will disintegrate over time
Thinking
Manipulating and transforming information in memory, often to form concepts, reason, think critically, and solve problems
Concepts
Categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics based on common properties
Concept map
A visual representation of a concept’s connections and hierarchical organization
Hypotheses
Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy
Prototype matching
Individuals decide whether an item is a member of a category by comparing it with the most typical item(s) of the category
Inductive reasoning
Reasoning from the specific to the general
Deductive reasoning
Reasoning form the general to the specific
Analogy
A type of formal reasoning that involves four parts, with the relation between the last two parts being the same as the relation between the first two.
Critical thinking
Thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating the evidence
Problem-solving
Finding an appropriate way to attain a goal
Subgoalling
Setting intermediate goals that put students in a better position to reach the final goal or solution
Algorithms
Strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem
Heuristics
Strategies or guidelines that can suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee a solution
Means-end analysis/difference reduction
A heuristic in which one identifies the goal (end) of a problem, assesses the current situation, and evaluates what needs to be done (means) to decrease the difference between the two conditions.
Fixation
Using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh, new perspective
Functional fixedness
A type of fixation in which an individual fails to solve a problem because she or he views the elements solely in terms of their usual functions
Mental set
A type of fixation in which an individual tries to solve a problem in a particular way that has worked in the past
Confirmation bias
The tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them
Problem-based learning
Emphasis on solving authentic problems like those that occur in daily life
Near transfer
Transfer that occurs when situations are very similar
Far transfer
Transfer of learning to a situation that is very different from the one in which the initial learning took place
Low-road transfer
Transfer that occurs when previous learning is transferred to another situation automatically and often unconsciously.
High-road transfer
Transfer that is conscious and effortful
Metacognitive knowledge
Monitoring and reflecting on one’s current or recent thoughts
Metacognitive activity
Consciously adapting and managing thinking strategies during problem solving and purposeful thinking
Explicit strategy instruction
Requires that teachers model appropriate learning processes frequently
