Chapter 7 Behavioural & Social Cognitive Approaches Flashcards
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs through experience
Behaviourism
View that behaviour should be explained by observable experiences and not by mental processes
Mental processes
The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences but that cannot be observed by others
Associative learning
Learning in which two events are connected or associated
What are the 4 cognitive approaches to learning?
Social cognitive, cognitive information processing, cognitive constructivist, social constructivist
Ivan Pavlov
Developed the concept of classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning
Type of learning in which an organism learns to connect or associate stimuli.
Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment
Neutral stimulus (bell) is presented before US (food). Neutral stimulus is paired with US, thus becoming the CS (bell). By itself the bell is able to elicit the dogs salivation = CS (salivation towards bell)
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
Stimulus that automatically produces an unlearned resposne. ex.Food
Unconditioned response (UR)
An unlearned response that is automatically elicited by the US. ex.Salivation towards food
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being associated with the US. ex.Bell
Conditioned response (CR)
A learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after US-CS pairing. ex. Salivation towards sound of bell
Generalization (classical conditioning)
Tendency of a new stimulus similar to the CS to produce a similar response Ex. Being nervous for both chem & bio tests since they’re similar
Discrimination (classical conditioning)
Resonding to certain stimuli but not others Ex. The dog responded only to the bell and not any other sound
Extinction (classical conditioning)
The weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the US Ex. Pavlov rang the bell several times without giving the dog food. The dog eventually stopped salivating.
Systematic desensitization
Method based on classical conditioning that reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive visualizations of increasingly anxiety-producing situations. Ex. Constantly replacing anxious thoughts with relaxing ones
Operant/instrumental conditioning
Form of learning in which the consequences of behaviour produce changes in the probability that the behaviour will occur
B. F Skinner
Main architect of the concept of operant conditioning
Law of effect (Thorndike)
Behaviours followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and behaviours followed by negative outcomes are weakened. The consequences of these behaviours determine whether they are kept
Reinforcement (reward)
Consequence that increases the probability of a behaviour occuring
Punishment
A consequence that decreases the probability that a behaviour will occur
Positive reinforcement
The frequency of a behaviour increases because it is followed by a stimulus. Ex. Teacher praise increases students writing behaviour
Negative reinforcement
The frequency of a behaviour increases because stimulus is removed/avoided Ex. Fathers nagging (unpleasant stimulus) causes son to do homework (response)
Positive punishment
The administration of an unwelcome consequence, such as detention or additional homework
Negative punishment
The removal of a valued items, such as a field trip or a class computer
Difference between reinforcement and punishment
Reinforcement is a proactive strategy. Punishment does not provide students the opportunity to rectify the situation.
Generalization (operant conditioning)
Giving the same resposne to similar stimuli. Ex. Does giving praise to student in class make them work harder outside of class
Discrimination (operant)
Differentiating among stimuli or environmental events. Ex. Distinguishing between teachers math hmwk tray and english hmwk tray
Extinction (operant)
When a previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases. Ex. Teacher responds to student who speaks without raising hand. Student learns this is a good way to get teachers attention. Teacher withdraws attention next time, student speaking out might cease.
Applied behaviour analysis
The specific and comprehensive use of principles of operant conditioning to the development of abilities and self-direction skills of learners. In other words, appying operant conditioning to change behaviour
3 uses of applied behaviour analysis
1) Increase desirable behaviour
2) Using prompts and shaping
3) decrease undesirable behaviour
Five operant conditioning strategies to increase desirable behaviours
- Choose effective reinforcers
- Mak reinforcers contingent and timely
- Select the best schedule of reinforcement
- Consider contracting
- Use negative reinforcement effectively
Premack principle
A high-probability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low-probability activity. Ex. When you complete this, you get that.
Schedules of reinforcement
Partial (only part of the time) reinforcement timetables that determine when a response will be reinforced
4 main schedules of reinforcement
- Fixed-ratio
- Variable-ratio
- Fixed-interval
- Variable-interval
Fixed-ratio schedule
Reinforcing behaviour after a set number of responses.Ex. giving praise after every 4th correct resposne
Variable-ratio schedule
Unpredictably reinforcing a behaviour after an average number of times.
Fixed-interval schedule
Reinforcing correct response after a fixed amount of time. Ex. giving praise for correct resposne after 2 minutes.
Variable-interval schedule
Reinforcing resposne after a variable amount of time has passed. Ex. giving praise for correct response at random intervals
Contracting
Putting reinforcement contingencies (possible future event) in writing. Ex. “if…then” statements
Prompts
Stimulus or cue given before a response that increases the likelihood of the response occuring. Ex. giving a hint to the answer of a question.
Shaping
Teaching new behaviours by reinforcing successive (following one another) approximations to a specified target behaviour. In other words, slowly reinforcing a desired behaviour. Ex. giving praise for getting a 60%. Then next time only giving praise if getting a 70%, then 80%, 90%, and then 100%
4 ways of decreasing undesirable behaviours
1) Use differential reinforcement
2) Terminate reinforcement (extinction)
3) Remove desirable stimuli
4) Present aversive stimuli (punishment)
Differential reinforcement
Reinforcing behaviour that is more appropriate or that is incompatible with what the student is doing. Ex. reinforcing student for completing learning activities on computer rather than plalying games.
Terminate reinforcment (extinction)
Take reinforcement away from a behaviour, such as removing teacher attention for inappropriate behaviours. Many inappropriate behaviours are maintained by positive reinforcment.
2 strategies for Removing desirable stimuli
1) Time-out
2) Response cost
Time-out
Take student away from positive reinforcement. Most widely use strategy by teachers.
Response cost (negative punishment)
Taking a positive reinforcer away from a student, as when the student loses certain privileges. In other words, the removal of a wanted item or privilege.
Present aversive stimuli (positive punishment)
Punishment is an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus provided to decrease behaviour. It should be enacted in conjunction (the act of joining) with reinforcement of desired responses
Whhat are the most common types of acersive stimuli used by teachers?
Verbal reprimands (Express sharp disapproval or criticism of (someone) because of their behavior or actions)
What are some problems associated with aversive stimuli as punishment?
- Intense punishment like yelling or screaming presents students with an out-of control model for handling stressful situations
- The use of punishment can appear to validate verbal and physical agression.
Bandura’s Social cognitive theory
Social and cognitive factors, as well as behaviour, play important roles in learning
Bandura’s reciprocal determinism model
Model consisting of three main factors (behaviour, person (cognitive), & environment) that interact to influence learning.
Self-efficacy (person (cognitive) factor)
The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes. Has powerful influence over behaviour. Person with low self-efficacy might not try to study for a test b/c they dont believe it will do them any good.
Observational learning/ imitation or modelling
Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates someone else’s behaviour.
Bandura’s classic bobo doll study
A child observes an adult model aggressively attack the bobo doll. The child model’s these aggressive actions and follows suit. This experiment showed how learning can occur by watching a model who is not reinforced or punished. It also demonstrates the distinction between learning and performance.
Bandura’s model of observational learning
- Attention (attending to what the model is doing or saying)
- Retention (coding the infromation and keeping it in memory to be retrieved later)
- Motor reproduction
- Reinforcement or incentive conditions (motivating child to perform modelled behaviour)
Cognitive behaviour approaches
Emphasis on having students monitor, manage, and regulate their own behaviour rather than let it be controlled by external factors.
Self-instructional methods
Cognitive behaviour techniques aimed at teaching individuals to modify their own behaviour. Ex. replacing negative thinking with postive ones.
Self-regulatory learning
The self-generation and self-monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours to reach a goal. It gives students responsibility for their learning.
Butler’s strategic content learning model
Involves:
1) analyzing task demands
2) selecting, adapting, or creating personalized strategies
3) implementing and monitoring strategies
4) self-evaluating performance
5) revising goals or strategies
Emphasis is put on working collaboratively with students to discover a personalized strategic approach to learning.
