Chapter 8 Flashcards
What is memory?
the processes that allow us to record and later retrieve experiences and information.
What are the three basic processes of memory?
ENCODING
STORAGE
RETRIEVAL
Explain the three stage model of memory.
Views memory as having distinct, but interacting components (doesn’t suggest that these components are bound to a specific brain structure)
1) SENSORY MEMORY: holds incoming sensory info just long enough for it to be recognized
2) WORKING (short-term) MEMORY: holds info we are consciously aware of at any given time. Constantly works on/processes info.
3) LONG-TERM MEMORY: vast library of durable stored memories
How does information pass through the 3 stage model of memory?
sensory input to
sensory registers (in sensory memory)
moves by encoding/attention
to working memory
where it is rehearsed and then encoded to
long-term memory
What does sensory memory do?
briefly holds sensory information
What are 2 types of sensory registers in sensory memory?
ICONIC STORE: for visual information
very short duration; fraction of a second
ECHOIC STORE: for auditory information
lasts about 2 s
How is information represented in working memory?
by mental representations/memory codes
the memory code does not correspond to form of original status (words on a page are visual, but are represented in the mind phonetically)
Give a few examples of codes that may be used in the brain
VISUAL encoding
PHONOLOGICAL encoding
SEMANTIC encoding (by meaning)
MOTOR encoding (movement)
What is the limit to capacity of our short term/working memory?
7 +- 2 meaningful units
you may be able to remember 7 separate numbers, but if you clunk numbers together you can remember much more than that. Same with words/sentences
What is chunking?
combining individual items into larger units of meaning
ex thepieishot has many small units, but combine it into a sentence and you can easily remember
most effective when chunk is meaningful:
random letters can be put together to form a chunk, letters that spell a word hold more meaning and are better
What is the shelf-life or duration of a memory in working memory?
approx. 20s without rehearsal
What are 2 ways we can extend the duration of a memory in working memory? which is more effective?
1) MAINTENANCE rehearsal: simple repetition
2) ELABORATIVE rehearsal: focus on the meaning or relate it to things we know.
elaborative is more effective in converting to long term
Explain how the view of short-term/working memory has changed.
originally it was viewed as a passive component that converted and retrieved info to long-term
now considered working memory because it:
-actively processes different types of info and supports problem solving and planning and in doing so interacts with long term memory
What are the 4 components of working memory?
AUDITORY WORKING MEMORY (phonological loop)
SPATIAL WORKING MEMORY (visuospatial sketchpad)
EPISODIC BUFFER: provides temp storage for info to be integrated between different systems
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE: directs action/attention, recalls from long-term, and integrates input
What is the serial position effect?
it refers to the U-shaped pattern of memory we can recall
say we have a list of 30 words; we will recall more at the beginning and at the end if asked to recall as many as possible in any order
What are the two components to the serial position effect?
PRIMACY effect: this is at the start of the list and represents info converted to long-term
RECENCY effect: info at the end of the list that is still in short term
What are the two types of processing that translate memory to long-term?
EFFORTFUL processing: Intentional and conscious effort to do so. ex studying
AUTOMATIC processing: unintentional and requiring minimal attention.
ex recalling where on a page a piece of information is
What is the levels of processing concept?
the more deeply we process info, the better it will be remembered
structural is shallow
phonemic is medium
semantic is deepest
What is hierarchal organization?
it organizes information by order of association with each other like a tree.
What are mnemonic devices?
aids memory by organization
hierarchies
chunking
acronyms
What is dual coding theory?
states memory is enhanced if we use both verbal and visual codes
ex the word firetruck and a visual image of one
also applies to more abstract concepts but it is harder to associate them
What is a schema?
a mental framework that we develop through experience
creates a perceptual set that helps us organize and interpret info
What is expert knowledge?
the process of developing schemas
ex musical notes on a page look meaningless to someone who can’t read it. To a musician, their schemas make it easy to remember it
experts look for logical meaning
what is the associative network concept
represents memories as a massive network of associated ideas and concept
things that are strongly associated are easily recalled
What is priming?
in associative network theory it believes that a concept being activated partially activates other concepts that are related
this leads to a SPREADING ACTIVATION
What are the two approaches to memory as a network?
Associative network
Neural network
What is the neural network concept?
think of your brain being divided into many, many nodes that each fire
a concept is represented as a pattern of nodes firing (not just one)
also called parallel distributed processing models
What are the two types of long-term memory?
DECLARITIVE: can be verbalized (factual knowledge)
PROCEDURAL: cannot be clearly stated (skills and actions and conditioned responses)
What are the two sub categories of DECLARITIVE memory?
EPISODIC: recalling the details of experience
ex. when, where, how, what
SEMANTIC: general factual knowledge (includes professional)
What is explicit and implicit memory?
EXPLICIT: conscious or intentional memory retrieval
ex. recalling a grocery list
IMPLICIT: memory influences behaviour but no conscious awareness.
ex HM could perform a mirror tracing task, but have no recollection of learning it
What is a retrieval que?
any stimuli that leads to activation of information stored in long-term
What can be said about multiple and self-generated cues
both make recalling information easier
multiple involves deeper processing
self-generated hold personal meaning
What can be said about distinctiveness of memories?
we are much more likely to recall something that stands out from the rest of the memories
ex recalling the word tomato in a list of words about animals
What is a flashbulb memories?
memories that are vivid and clear like a snapshot in time
does not mean that they are more accurate:
higher emotional response improves accuracy
individuals who were most inaccurate were most sure that they were correct
What is the encoding specificity principle?
memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match those that were present during encoding
CONTEXT dependent: recreating the environment
STATE dependent: internal state matches (mood and physiology)
How do we improve our memory?
elaborative rehearsal
link to other info
organize info
overlearn (rehearse far past initial learning)
distribute learning over time
minimize interference (take breaks)
use imagery
What two approaches attempt to explain why we forget?
DECAY OF MEMORY TRACE:
long-term physical trace in nervous system fades over time with disuse
INTERFERENCE THEORY:
information forgotten because other items in long-term interfere with retrieval
what are the two types of interference in interference theory?
PROACTIVE interference:
past material interferes with recall of newer material
RETROACTIVE interference:
new information interferes with ability to recall older information
What are the two types of amnesia?
RETROGRADE amnesia:
memory loss for events before amnesia
ANTEROGRADE amnesia:
memory loss for events after amnesia
What is infantile amnesia?
memory loss for early childhood experiences
typical for events before ages 3-4
What is retrospective memory?
memory of past events
what is prospective memory?
remembering to perform an activity in the future
Explain how memory is a constructive process.
we piece together bits of information we can recall and add in other pieces
often inaccurate
How do schemas affect our recollection of information?
they create a perceptual set that we use to organize and reconstruct memories in a way we can understand it
What is the misinformation effect?
the distortion of a memory by misleading post-event information
What is the significance of the misinformation effect?
can effect eyewitness testimony
can occur because of source confusion
What is a critical issue in children’s memories?
SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONING
children are much more susceptible to misleading and suggestive questions
What did Lashley spend many years searching for? what is it?
ENGRAM: physical trace stored in brain when memory formed
it doesn’t exist, memory is stored throughout the brain
What are the three basic approaches to discovering where in the brain are memories?
human lesion studies
nonhuman lesion studies
brain-imaging studies
What does the hippocampus do in terms of memory?
convert STM to LTM
What does the cerebral cortex do in terms of memory?
encodes information
What does the prefrontal cortex do in terms of memory?
deep processing
What happens to memory if the thalamus is damaged?
extensive anterograde and retrograde amnesia
What does the amygdala do in terms of memory?
controls the emotional aspects of memory
What does the cerebellum do in terms of memory?
forms procedural memory
