Chapter 2 Flashcards
What are the 6 steps to the scientific method?
1) observe an event
2) construct a hypothesis that makes a prediction
3) test the prediction
4) observe the result
5) revise/further research
6) construct a new hypothesis
What are the 3 forces behind the scientific method?
CURIOSITY: asking why
SKEPTICIM: need for evidence
OPEN-MINDEDNESS: is there another explanation
What is a hypothesis?
tentative explanation or prediction of some phenomenon or idea about how things work
often if then statements
What is a theory?
set of formal statements that explain how and why certain events are related
much broader than a hypotheses and has facts to back up the explanation
What are the two approaches to understanding behaviour?
HINDSIGHGT understanding: looking back on past experiences. not conducting experiment. common in law
understanding through PREDICTION, CONTROL, THEORY BUILDING: this is the scientific method.
What is the drawback of hindsight understanding?
past events can be explained in many ways. May not always be an accurate recalling. Experiences are subjective to the individual.
What are the advantages of understanding through prediction, control, and theory building?
satisfies curiosity, builds knowledge, generates principles that can be applied to new situations.
supported by evidence
What are the 4 aspects of a good theory?
1) organize information in a meaningful way
2) are testable
3) prediction made by theory supported by evidence
4) conform to law of parsimony
What is the law of parsimony? Explain why this is important.
The simplest theory is preferred.
This will reduce the number of variables and therefore reduce the noise in the experiment
What is a variable?
Any characteristic that can vary
What is an operational definition and why is it important?
It defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to produce or measure it
it is important because variables may have different meanings for different individuals
What are the 4 ways to measure variables? What are the issues with each?
1) self-report - social desirability bias
2) reports by others - social desirability bias
3) physiological - establishing a link between physical responses and mental events
4) behavioural observations - measurements must be reliable (use 2 observers). Also is observation affecting the result?
What are the three methods of research?
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:
describe behaviour of organisms in natural settings
CORRELATIONAL STUDIES: is there a relationship between/among variables?
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS: is there a cause and effect relationship?
What are the three sub categories of descriptive research?
CASE STUDIES
SURVEYS
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
What is a case study?
an in depth analysis of an individual, group, or event.
What are the advantages of case studies?
Useful for rare phenomenon
Can challenge validity of theories
Can illustrate effectiveness of programs for special populations
What are the disadvantages of case studies?
poor method for determining cause and effect relations
may not be generalizable (not apply to everyone)
researcher bias: lack of objectivity in the way data is gathered and interpreted
What is naturalistic observation? what are its advantages and disadvantages?
Observation of behaviour in a natural setting
ADVANTAGE: provides a rich description of behaviour
DISADVANTAGES: does not permit clear causal conclusions and presence of observer may alter the result
What are the drawbacks of survey research?
Unrepresentative samples
Surveys rely on self-reports
Data cannot be make cause and effect conclusions
What is a representative sample, how is it obtained, and what are the issues with it.
A population has a distribution of variables within it. To gain an accurate sample must randomly select a set number to be the sample (number is calculated)
if a specific attribute is important to the study, you can control that attribute distribution in the sample
What is correlational research?
asks questions about associations between events/variables
researcher measures 2 variables and then statistically determines if they are related
no manipulation, just measurement
cannot determine causality (bi-directionality issue)
may have a 3rd variable that has a relationship with the two variables and they may not be related at all
What is a correlation coefficient?
ranges from -1.0 to +1.0
sign indicates direction
absolute value indicates strength (0 no correlation)
+ x increases, y increases (or both decrease
- x increases, y decreases (or vise versa
What are the three essential characteristics of experimental research?
1) researcher manipulates one variable
2) researcher measures where this variable produces change in another variable
3) researcher attempts to control for other factors that might influence results
What is an independent variable?
the variable in the experiment that is being manipulated
can be considered the cause
What is a dependent variable?
the variable in the experiment that is measured by the researcher and influenced by the independent variable
What are the two types of groups that are in an experiment
EXPERIMENTAL group: receives treatment/change (can have multiple. ex different dosages)
CONTROL group: not exposed to treatment/change in order to provide a norm to compare results to.
What are the two different ways an experiment can be designed?
Different participants in each condition.
Same participants in each condition (reduces noise in an experiment)
What is important to ensure is happening when creating control and experimental groups?
must be randomly selected and equal size
you want the control and experimental groups to be identical/equal (as much as possible)
Why might it be beneficial to have the same participants in all conditions? What might be the problem with doing this?
by doing this the experimental and control groups are now identical/equal
other factors such as learning effect, boredom, or fatigue may become an issue. need to use counterbalancing.
What is counterbalancing?
it is varying the order of conditions so that no one condition has an overall advantage relative to another.
Ex. driving and talking on a cell phone. Have half of the subjects drive first then talk and drive, and reverse the order for the other half
What is validity in terms of an experiment?
how well an experiment actually tests what it is designed to test
What is internal validity in terms of an experiment?
degree to which conclusions are supported
what are 4 threats to research validity?
CONFOUNDING VARIABLES: where two variables are intertwined in such a way that we can not determine which one has influenced a dependent variable.
DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS: cues participants use to determine how they are supposed to behave
PLACEBO EFFECT
EXPERIMENTER EXPECTATIONS: the subtle and unintentional ways researchers influence their participants to respond in a manner consistent with expectations
How can you eliminate experimenter expectations?
DOUBLE BLIND PROCEDURE:
neither the participant nor the researcher knows which experimental condition the person is in
What is external validity?
being able to apply the results to other people, settings, and conditions
How do you determine external validity?
by replication; repeating a study to see if the results can be duplicated
What are the advantages in ethical research?
PROTECT and PROMOTE welfare of participants
AVOID doing harm
BENEFIT must be proportionally greater than the risk
CONSENT (uncoerced)
ENSURE privacy and confidentiality
What is deception in research, why is it controversial.
When participants are misled about the nature of the research
controversial because it violates informed consent
permitted only if no alternative is available and must be debriefed by competent person about the true nature of the research
