chapter 8 Flashcards
Memory
Define memory.
Memory is an information processing system; therefore, we often compare it to a computer. Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time
Questions for the study of memory.
- How do we process and store information?
- Are there different types of memory?
- How do we retrieve memories?
- Why do we forget?
Name the three functions that shows how memory functions.
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
Define each.
- Encoding involves the input of information into the memory
system. - Storage is the retention of the encoded information.
- Retrieval, is getting the information out of memory and back into
awareness.
When the brain receives information from the environment what does it do with it?
- Labels/codes it.
- Organizes it with other similar information.
- Connects new concepts to
existing concepts.
What are the two types of processing for encoding?
-Automatic processing is usually done without any conscious awareness. (ex. what did you eat for lunch today)
-Effortful processing: required a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that information (ex. material to know for a test)
What are the different types of encoding?
- Semantic encoding – encoding of words and their meanings.
- Visual encoding – encoding of images.
- Acoustic encoding – encoding of sounds.
Define the self-reference effect.
Self-reference effect – the tendency for an individual to have
better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison
to material that has less personal relevance.
Define storage.
Storage is the creation of a permanent record of information.
Define the Baddeley and Hitch model of storage.
Baddeley and Hitch proposed a model of storage where short-term memory has different forms depending on the type of information received.
3 short-term systems:
1. Visuospatial sketchpad (ex. building, landmarks)
2. Episodic buffer (ex. potholes)
3. Phonological loop. (ex. directions from passenger or waze)
According to the model, a central executive supervises the flow of information between the systems.
Define the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of storage.
- Information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored in long-term memory. (Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and finally Long-Term Memory)
- Based on the belief that memories are processed the same way that a computer processes information.
Define sensory memory
Storage of brief sensory events, such as sights,
sounds, and tastes.
- First step of processing stimuli from the environment.
- If the information is not important, it is discarded.
- If the information is valuable then it moves into our short-term
memory.
Define the stroop effect.
The Stroop test can be used to measure a person’s selective attention capacity and skills, processing speed, and alongside other tests to evaluate overall executive processing abilities. (colour words with different colours on them) - semantic vs sensory (semantic is much faster)
Define short-term memory.
a temporary storage system
that processes incoming sensory memory.
- Lasts about 20 seconds.
- Capacity is usually about 7 items +/-2 (discovered by George Miller).
Short-term memories are either discarded or stored in long-term
memory.
Define memory consolidation.
Transfer of STM to long-term memory.
Define rehearsal.
The conscious repetition of information to be
remembered. (e.g. chunking)
Define long-term memory.
LTM is the continuous storage of
information.
It has no limit and is like the
information you store on the
hard drive of a computer.
What are the two components of long-term memory?
Explicit and implicit
Define explicit (declarative) memory. + talk about the two types
memories of facts and events we
can consciously remember and recall/declare
- Semantic – knowledge about words, concepts and language.
- Episodic – information about events we have personally
experienced.
e.g. high school graduation
semantic: date
episodic: how it felt being there/getting diploma
Define implicit memory.
Memories that are not part of our consciousness.
- Formed through behaviours.
Define implicit procedural memory.
stores information about how to do things.
- Skills and actions.
- E.g. how to ride a bike, tie your shoe laces, drive. (sticks the most = muscle memory)
Define retrieval.
The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into
conscious awareness.
What are the three ways to retrieve information?
- Recall – being able to access information without cues.
- Used for an essay test. - Recognition – being able to identify information that you have previously learned
after encountering it again.
- Used for a multiple-choice test. - Relearning – Learning information that you previously learned.
- After learning Spanish in high school, you might forget how to speak it if you do not
use it. However, if you try to relearn it, you will learn it quicker than the first time.
What is the encoding specificity principle?
The idea that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps recreate the specific way in
which information was initially encoded.
Differentiate state dependent retrieval and context dependent retireval.
- State dependent retrieval: Tendency for information to be better recalled when the
person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval (how you feel) - Context dependent retrieval: Tendency for information to be better recalled in the
same context during encoding and retrieval (physical context - say room)
Define transfer-appropriate processing.
Memory is likely to transfer from
one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval context
of the situations match
Talk about Karl Lashley and engrams.
Looking for evidence of an engram – the group of neurons that serve
as the “physical representation of memory”.
Define Lashley’s equipotential hypothesis.
If part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over that memory function. (plasticity, adaptive!)
What is Eric Kandel’s point of view?
- Studied the synapse and its role
in controlling the flow of
information in the Aplysia - Synaptic plasticity
- Habituation
- Sensitization
What are the main parts of the brain involved with memory?
The amygdala, the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex
Describe the amygdala’s role in the brain.
- Involved in fear-based memories
- Processes emotional information important in
encoding memories at a deeper level and memory
consolidation.
Describe the hippocampus’ role in the brain.
- Associated with explicit memory, recognition
memory and spatial memory. - Projects information to cortical regions that give
memories meaning and connect them with other
memories. - Involved in memory consolidation.
- Damage leads to an inability to process new
declarative memories.
Talk about the hippocampus patient: H.M.
H. M., had both his left and right temporal lobes (hippocampi) removed in an attempt to help control the seizures he had been suffering from for years. As a result, his declarative memory was significantly affected, and he could not form new semantic knowledge. He lost the ability to form new memories, yet he could still remember information and events that had occurred prior to the surgery.
Describe the cerebellum’s role in the brain.
- Plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to
play the piano and classical conditioning. - Damage prevents classical conditioning such as an eye-blink in
response to a puff of air.
Describe the prefrontal cortex’s role in the brain.
- Appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks.
- PET scans show activation in the left inferior prefrontal cortex
when completing semantic tasks.
How do neurotransmitters play a role and which ones?
- Repeated neuron activity → increased neurotransmitters in the synapse →
stronger synaptic connections. (This is how memory consolidation occurs). - Epinephrine (emotional response)
- Dopamine (reward system)
- Serotonin (calm long-term)
- Glutamate (excitatory neurotransmitters)
- Acetylcholine (move, aroused=more aroused, more chances of remembering it)
Define the arousal theory.
- Arousal Theory – strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories
and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories.
Define the flash bulb memory.
A record of an
atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations.
Depending on the age and
awareness/interests of the person, certain flashbulb memories can act as generational reference points. (e.g. 9/11)
Define amnesia.
the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease,
physical trauma, or psychological trauma.
What are the two common types of amnesia?
- Anterograde amnesia – inability to remember new information after
point of trauma. - Retrograde amnesia – loss of memory (partial or complete) for events
that occurred prior to the trauma.
Differentiate memory construction and reconstruction.
- Construction – formulation of new memories.
- Reconstruction – process of bringing up old memories.
Define suggestibility.
- Suggestibility is the effects of misinformation from external sources that
leads to the creation of false memories. - Can cause people to claim to remember something that was only a
suggestion someone made. - Memories are fragile making them vulnerable to the power of suggestion.
What is the transcience/storage decay?
Ebbinghaus (1885) Studied the process of memorization.
The Ebbinghaus forgetting curve shows how quickly memory for new information
decays.
- 50% after 20 minutes.
- 70% after 24 hours.
