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Psychology 2035 > Chapter 7 - Social Thinking and Social Influence > Flashcards

Chapter 7 - Social Thinking and Social Influence Flashcards

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1
Q

What is person perception?

A

The process of forming impressions of others

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2
Q

What five key sources of information do we rely on when engaging in person perception?

A
  1. Appearance
  2. Verbal Behaviour
  3. Actions
  4. Nonverbal messages
  5. Situations
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3
Q

What are snap judgements?

A

Those made quickly and based on only a few bits of information and preconceived notions (shortcuts)

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4
Q

What do snap judgements rely on?

A

Automatic processing

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5
Q

When are snap judgements used?

A

When we are not motivated to form an accurate impression of another person

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6
Q

What do systematic judgements require?

A

More controlled processing

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7
Q

When do systematic judgements occur?

A

When forming impressions of others that can affect our happiness or welfare

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8
Q

What are attributions?

A

Inferences that people draw about the causes of their own behaviour, others’ behaviour, and events

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9
Q

What are the two types of attributions?

A

External and internal

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10
Q

What are internal attributions?

A

When people attribute the cause of others’ behaviour to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, or feelings

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11
Q

What are external attributions?

A

When people attribute the cause of others’ behaviour to situational demands or environmental constraints

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12
Q

When are we most likely to make attributions about others’ behaviour (3 things) (1)?

A

When others behave in unexpected or negative ways

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13
Q

(2)

A

When events are personally relevant

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14
Q

(3)

A

When we are suspicious about others’ motives

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15
Q

What can influence our actual perceptions of people?

A

How we expect others to behave

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16
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

The tendency to seek information that supports one’s beliefs while not pursuing disconfirming information

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17
Q

When so self-fulfilling prophecies occur?

A

When expectations about a person cause him or her to behave in ways that confirm the expectations

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18
Q

What are the three steps of the self-fulfilling prophecy (1)?

A

You form an impression of someone

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19
Q

(2)

A

You behave toward that person in a way that is consistent with your impression

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20
Q

(3)

A

The person exhibits the behaviour you encourage, which confirms your initial impression

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21
Q

What are social categorizations?

A

Cognitive “shortcuts” in which we categorize people on the basis of nationality, race, gender, etc.

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22
Q

How does perception of similar and dissimilar individuals work?

A

People perceive similar individuals to be members of their in-group (us) and dissimilar people to be members of the outgroup (them)

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23
Q

What are the three important results of categorizing (1)?

A

People have more negative attitudes toward outgroup members

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24
Q

(2)

A

People see out group members as more alike than they really are (the out group homogeneity effect)

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25
Q

(3)

A

The visibility of out group members is heightened when they comprise the minority in a crowd

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26
Q

What are stereotypes?

A

Widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group

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27
Q

Four what four reasons do stereotypes persist (1)?

A

They are functional in that they require less effort, cognitively (we are “cognitive misers”)

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28
Q

(2)

A

But the tradeoff for simplicity is inaccuracy

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29
Q

(3)

A

Confirmation bias

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30
Q

(4)

A

Self-fulfilling prophecy

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31
Q

What does the fundamental attribution error refer to?

A

The tendency to explain other people’s behaviour as the result of personal, rather than situational factors

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32
Q

What two steps are required to make attributions (1)?

A

Focusing on the person (making an internal attribution)

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33
Q

(2)

A

Taking the situation into account (allowing for external attributions)

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34
Q

Why do we often skip the second step in making attributions?

A

Because it is more effortful

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35
Q

What is the problem with skipping the second step?

A

This causes the observers to exaggerate the role of personal factors in behaviour, making a fundamental attribution error

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36
Q

What is a defensive attribution?

A

The tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way

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37
Q

What is efficiency as a key them in person perception?

A

When forming impressions of others we default to automatic processing

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38
Q

What is selectivity as a key them in person perception?

A

We “see what we expect to see” by focusing on aspects of the person that confirm our expectations

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39
Q

What is consistency as a key them in person perception?

A

First impressions do matter!

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40
Q

What is the primacy effect, under consistency as a key them in person perception?

A

Once a perceiver has formed an impression of someone, he or she tunes out subsequent information

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41
Q

What is prejudice?

A

A negative attitude toward members of a group

42
Q

What does discrimination involve?

A

Behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group

43
Q

What test demonstrates that we are not even aware of our prejudices?

A

Implicit Association Test

44
Q

Are prejudice and discrimination always together?

A

Although they are highly correlated, one can exist without the other

45
Q

What has happened to old fashioned or “overt” discrimination?

A

It has declined in recent years, and a more subtle “modern” form of discrimination has emerged

46
Q

What is modern discrimination?

A

When people privately harbour negative attitudes toward minority groups, but express them only when they feel such views are justified, or that it’s safe to do so

47
Q

What is old fashioned sexism characterized by?

A

Endorsement of traditional gender roles and acceptance of stereotypes that portray females as less competent than males

48
Q

What is modern sexism characterized by?

A

Denial of continued discrimination and rejection of policies intended to help women

49
Q

What are four causes of prejudice?

A

Authoritarianism, cognitive distortions and expectations, competition between groups and threats to social identity

50
Q

What is considered the authoritarian personality?

A

A personality type characterized by prejudice toward any group perceived to be different from oneself

51
Q

What types of cognitive distortions and expectations contribute to prejudice?

A

Stereotyping, fundamental attribution error, defensive attributions and expectations

52
Q

How does competition between groups cause prejudice?

A

Perceived threats to one’s group, such as conflict over scarce resources, causes prejudice against out group members

53
Q

In terms of threats to social identity, what two responses may occur when the collective self-esteem of a group is threatened?

A

In group favouritism and out group denigration

54
Q

What can cognitive strategies do to reduce prejudice?

A

They make an effort o override stereotypes by using controlled processing

55
Q

In terms of intergroup contact, what are subordinate goals?

A

Goals that require two or more groups to work together to achieve mutual ends

56
Q

How can subordinate goals reduce prejudice?

A

They can reduce intergroup hostility

57
Q

What is persuasion?

A

It involves the communication of arguments and information intended to change another person’s attitudes

58
Q

What do “attitudes” include?

A

Beliefs and feelings about people, objects and ideas

59
Q

What are the four elements of persuasion (1)?

A

The source - the person who sends a communication

60
Q

(2)

A

The receiver - the person to whom the message is sent

61
Q

(3)

A

The message - the information transmitted by the source

62
Q

(4)

A

The channel - the medium through which the message is sent

63
Q

In terms of source factors, when is persuasion more effective?

A

When the source has high credibility and when the source is likeable

64
Q

When are sources deemed credible?

A

If they have expertise and are trustworthy

65
Q

When is source likability increased?

A

When the source is attractive and/or similar to the receiver

66
Q

When are messages most effective (there are three things)?

A

When two sided arguments are used, persuaders use emotional appeals to shift attitudes, and they create positive feelings in the receiver

67
Q

What are four receiver factors (1)?

A

Mood (optimistic vs. pessimistic)

68
Q

(2)

A

The receiver’s need for cognition, or tendency to seek out and enjoy effortful though, problem solving activities and in depth analysis

69
Q

(3)

A

Forewarning, which reduces the impact of arguments on receivers

70
Q

(4)

A

Receivers are harder to persuade when the message content is incompatible with existing beliefs

71
Q

What does the elaboration likelihood model say?

A

Our thoughts about a persuasive message are most important in determining whether attitudes will change

72
Q

What two routes can messages be perceived?

A

Through a peripheral route (not mindful processing) or central route (mindful processing)

73
Q

What is the result of messages being perceived by the central route?

A

High elaboration, which tends to produce longer lasting attitude change and stronger attitudes than the peripheral route

74
Q

Through what route are messages perceived more effective, longer lasting and a better predictor of behaviour?

A

The central route

75
Q

What two things need to happen for the central route to over ride the peripheral route?

A
  1. The receiver must be motivated to process the persuasive message
  2. Receivers must be able to grasp the persuasive message
76
Q

What is conformity?

A

Occurs when people yield to real or imagined social pressure

77
Q

What did Solomon Asch’s (1955) classic study demonstrate?

A

That people conformed easily to wrong answers given by others in a mock perception test

78
Q

What is the trend shown by Asch’s study about conformity?

A

Conformity increased to a point as group size increased, peaking at seven members

79
Q

Different than conformity, what is compliance?

A

Occurs when people yield to social pressure in their public behaviour, even though their private beliefs have not changed

80
Q

What two reasons could people be compliant?

A

Normative and informational influence

81
Q

What is normative influence?

A

Operates when people conform to social norms for fear of negative social consequences

82
Q

What is informational influence?

A

Operates when people look to others for how to behave in ambiguous situations

83
Q

Can pressure come from normative and informational influences?

A

Yes!

84
Q

What is the bystander effect?

A

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to provide help when others are present than when they are alone

85
Q

What is the bystander effect an example of?

A

The problem of informational influence

86
Q

What are three tips for resisting conformity pressures (1)?

A

Pay more attention to social forces operating on you

87
Q

(2)

A

Identify someone in the group whose views match yours

88
Q

(3)

A

Bring along a friend with similar views if you know that you will confront pressure

89
Q

What is obedience?

A

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

90
Q

What did Stanley Milgram’s classic study (1963) demonstrate?

A

That people’s tendency to obey is strong, even if they are asked to harm another person

91
Q

When is obedience strongest?

A

When demands increase gradually, when others take responsibility for your actions, and when we are motivate to meet the authority figure’s expectations

92
Q

Based on the three types of situations when obedience is strongest, how could we say human behaviour is determined?

A

It is determined more by the power of the situation than by the character of the person

93
Q

What does the consistency principle state?

A

That once people agree to something, they will tend to stick with it

94
Q

What are the two common techniques in terms of the consistency principle?

A

The foot in the door technique and the lowball technique

95
Q

What is the foot in the door technique?

A

Getting people to agree to a small request so that they will agree to a larger request later

96
Q

What is the lowball technique?

A

Getting someone to commit to an attractive proposition before its hidden costs are revealed

97
Q

What does the reciprocity principle exploit?

A

The tendency for people to think they should pay back in kind what they receive from others

98
Q

What is the door in the face technique?

A

Involves making a large request that is likely to be turned down in order to increase the chances that people will agree to a smaller request later

99
Q

What is the scarcity principle?

A

People believe that if something is scarce it must be good and they are more likely to buy it

100
Q

What statements made by ads can explained the scarcity principle?

A

Limited supply available, for a limited time only, order while they last, time is running out

Psychology 2035 (8 decks)

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