Chapter 2 - Theories of Personality Flashcards
What is personality?
An Individual’s unique constellation of consistent behavioural traits
What is a personality trait?
A durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations
What are some common personality traits?
Honest, moody, impulsive, friendly
Who stated that there are five higher order traits that are known as the Big Five that enable an adequate description of personality?
Robert McCrae and Paul Costa (1987, 1997, 1999)
What are the Big Five?
Extraversion (or positive emotionality), neuroticism (or negative emotionality), openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness
What are psychodynamic theories?
Theories that include a variety of theoretical models derived from the work of Sigmund Freud, they all focus on unconscious mental forces that shape our personalities
What are four well known psychodynamic theorists?
Freud, Jung, Adler, Erikson
What three main assumptions is Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of personality based on (1)?
Personality is governed by unconscious forces that we cannot control
(2)
Childhood experiences play a significant role in determining adult personality
(3)
Personality is shaped by the manner in which individuals cope with sexual urges
What three structures did Freud argue that personality is divided into (1)?
The id is the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle
(2)
The ego is the decision making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle
(3)
The superego is the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong
What three layers of awareness are the id, ego and superego distributed across (1)?
The conscious - material we are fully aware of at a particular point in time
(2)
The preconscious - material just below the surface of awareness - can be easily retrieved
(3)
The unconscious - material well below the surface of conscious awareness but that greatly influences behaviour
What did Freud believe that behaviour was a result of?
An ongoing internal conflict among the id, ego and superego
What type of conflicts were especially significant?
Conflicts stemming from sexual and aggressive urges
What are defence mechanisms?
Largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from painful emotions such as anxiety and guilt
Why are defence mechanisms used in this context?
To protect from anxiety that arises from such conflicts
What are examples of key defence mechanisms (1)?
Repression - involves keeping distressing thoughts and feeling buried in the unconscious
(2)
Projection - involves attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another person
(3)
Displacement - involves diverting emotional feelings (usually anger) from their original source to a substitute target
(4)
Reaction formation - involves being in a way that is exactly the opposite of one’s true feelings
(5)
Regression - involves a reversion to immature patterns of behaviour
(6)
Rationalization - involves the creation of false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behaviour
(7)
Identification - involves bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group
What have studies focused on recently regarding defence mechanisms (1)?
Correlations between a repressive coping style and heart disease
(2)
The hypothesis that reaction formation underlies homophobia - some heterosexuals with unconscious same-sex attractions are more likely to exhibit elevated hostility toward gays and endorse anti-gay policies
How does Freud believe personality develops?
The basic elements of adult personality are in place by age five and result from the outcome of five psychosexual stages
What occurs in each psychosexual stage?
Children must cope with distinct immature sexual urges that influence adult personality
What is fixation?
It results if the child fails to move forward from one stage to another and is usually caused by excessive gratification or frustration of needs at a particular stage
What are the five stages of psychosexual development?
Oral (0-1), Anal (2-3), Phallic (4-5), Latency (6-12), Genital (Puberty onward)
How did Jung’s Analytical Psychology argument differ from Freud’s?
He also focused on the role of the unconscious, but argued that the unconscious is comprised of two layers
What two layers is the unconscious comprised of according to Jung (1)?
The personal unconscious which is similar to Freud’s unconscious layer
(2)
The collective unconscious which is a storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from people’s ancestral past that is shared with the entire human race
What does the collective unconscious not contain?
Memories of distinct, personal experiences
What does the collective unconscious contain instead?
Archetypes - emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning
What was Jung the first to describe?
Introverted (inner-directed) and extroverted (outer-directed) personality types
What did Adler believe the most important human drive is?
Not sexuality, but striving for superiority
What is compensation, as stated by Adler?
Efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by developing one’s abilities
What happens according to Adler if we are unsuccessful in using compensation?
We may develop an inferiority complex which is exaggerated feelings of weakness and inadequacy
What may some people do in response to perceived inferiorities?
They may overcompensate
What actress was Adler’s theory used to analyze?
Marilyn Monroe
What four important ideas has psychodynamic theory contributed to (1)?
Unconscious forces may contribute to personality
(2)
Internal conflict may play a key role in psychological distress
(3)
Early childhood experiences can influence adult personality
(4)
People do rely on defence mechanisms to reduce unpleasant emotions
In what four ways was the psychodynamic theory criticized (1)?
Poor testability - it is too vague to subject to scientific tests
(2)
Unrepresentative samples - Freud’s theories were based on a sample of women with unique experiences
(3)
Inadequate evidence - the theories depend too much on case studies of clients whose recollections may have been distorted to fit the theory
(4)
Sexism - the theories have male-oriented bias and do not adequately address women’s issues
What is behaviourism?
A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study observable behaviour
What do behavioural theories view personality as?
A collection of response tendencies that are tied to various stimulus situations
What do behavioural theories focus on?
Personality development and how children’s response tendencies are shaped by classical conditioning, operant conditioning and observational learning
What is Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning?
A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus
What may classical conditioning help to explain?
How people acquire particular emotional responses such as anxiety or phobias
What happens before classical conditioning?
The unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned repose but the neutral stimulus does not
What happens during classical conditioning?
The neutral stimulus is parked with the unconditioned stimulus
What happens after classical conditioning?
The neutral stimulus alone elicits the response, the neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus, and the response to it is a conditioned response
What is Skinner’s Operant conditioning?
A form of learning in which voluntary responses come to controlled by their consequences
What do favourable consequences, or “reinforcers” do?
They tend to cause organisms to repeat the behaviours that precede them
What do unfavourable consequences, or “punishers”?
They tend to discourage behaviours
What is positive reinforcement?
When a response is strengthened because it is followed by a pleasant stimulus
What is negative reinforcement?
When a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus
What is punishment?
When a response is weakened (decreases in frequency) because it is followed by an unpleasant stimulus
What learning does Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory involve?
Observational learning
What is observational learning?
When an organism’s response is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models
In what ways is this theory unique?
It requires that we pay attention to others’ behaviour, understand the consequences that follow other’s behaviour and store this information in memory
What did Bandura stress the importance of?
Self-efficacy
What is self-efficacy?
One’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviours that should lead to expected outcomes
What is high self-efficacy associated with?
Confidence
What is low self-efficacy associated with?
Doubt in one’s abilities
Why does Bandura believe that self-efficacy is one of the most important personality traits?
Because it is tied to success in many endeavours and resistance to stress
What has behavioural theory been credited for?
Suggesting that both personality and situational factors work together to shape behaviour
How has the behavioural theory been criticized?
Behaviourism has given too much credence to the presence of cognitive influences, and it relies too heavily on animal models
What is humanism?
A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their free will and their potential for personal growth
What three ideas is the humanistic perspective based on (1)?
Humans have an innate drive toward personal growth
(2)
Humans exercise free will over their actions
(3)
Humans are largely rational beings driven by conscious, not unconscious needs
What does Rogers’ person-centered theory state?
Personality contains only one construct, the self, or self-concept
What is the self-concept?
A collection of beliefs about own’s own nature, unique qualities, and typical behaviour
What needs to happen so our self-concept is congruent with reality?
Our ideas about ourselves need to match our actual experiences
What happens when our ideas about ourselves do not match reality?
Incongruence
What can incongruence do?
Undermine our well being
What is important in terms of self-concept and development?
All humans have a need for affection, and experiences early in life are key
What does it mean if parents make affection conditional and what does this do to a child?
The affection is given only if the child’s behaviour meets their expectations and children do not feel worth of love and develop and incongruent self concept
What does it do to children if parents give affection unconditionally?
Children feel worthy of love and develop congruent self concepts
What happens when your self concept is threatened, according to Rogers?
It creates anxiety
Based on this idea what can be said about individuals who have incongruent self concepts?
They experience more recurrent anxiety
What does Maslow’s theory of self-actualization state?
Human motives are organized into a hierarchy of needs
What is a hierarchy of needs?
A systematic arrangement of needs, according to priority, in which basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused
What do humans have an innate drive toward?
Personal growth and the a need for self-actualization
What is self-actualization?
The fulfillment of one’s potential
What is involved in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Physiological needs, safety and security needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and at the top need for self-actualization
When does progression occur in the hierarchy?
If lower needs are satisfied
When does regression occur in the hierarchy?
If lower needs are not being satisfied
What did Maslow identify individuals with extremely healthy personalities as?
Self-actualizing persons
What is an alternative model of Maslow’s hierarchy?
Physiological needs, Self-protection needs, Affiliation needs, Status/esteem needs, mate acquisition, mate retention, parenting
What two things is the humanistic theory credited with (1)?
Identifying the self-concept as a key element of personality
(2)
Placing an emphasis on a more positive outlook on human behaviour and personality
In what three ways has the humanistic theory been criticized (1)?
Poor testability
(2)
An unrealistic view of human nature
(3)
Inadequate evidence
What is Eysenck’s Theory?
That personality is a hierarchy of traits - biological differences occur along the extraversion-introversion dimension
What does the hierarchy of traits in Eysenck’s theory consist of?
Higher order traits determines a host of lower order traits, which determine one’s habitual responses
What is a heritability ratio?
An estimate of the proportion of trait variability in a population that is determined by variations in genetic inheritance
What do results from recent research in behavioural genetics on twins suggest?
That the heritability of personality is close to 50%
What have recent studies linked specific genes to?
Specific personality traits
What do these results suggest?
That biology may have a powerful influence on personality traits
What have neuroscientists begun examining?
The link between variations on the Big Five traits and variations in the relative size of various areas of the brain
What three findings have resulted from studies conducted by neuroscientists (1)?
Degree of extraversion is correlated with volume in the area of the brain which processes reward
(2)
Neuroticism scores correlated with volume of brain areas activated by threat, punishment, and negative emotions
(3)
Degree of conscientiousness positively correlated with size of area or brain responsible for planning and self-control
What is evolutionary Psychology?
A branch of psychology that examines behavioural processes in terms of their adaptive value for members of a species over the course of many generations
What does David Buss maintain?
The Big Five traits are present across a variety of cultures because they had significant adaptive value for humans
Despite the fact that recent research has generally supported many of the assumptions of the biological perspective, how has it been criticized?
There are statistical problems with the estimation of hereditary influence and “hindsight bias” may be present
What is sensation-seeking?
A generalized preference for high or low levels of sensory stimulation
Zuckerman believes that sensation seeking is a biologically based trait, with what four components?
Thrill and adventure seeking, attraction to unusual experiences, lack of inhibitions, easy susceptibility to boredom
What is a pro of sensation seeking?
Individuals who score high on the sensation seeking trait have a higher tolerance for stress
What is a con of sensation seeking?
Individuals who score high on the sensation seeking trait are also more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviour that may be harmful to their health
What is narcissism?
A personality trait marked by an inflated sense of importance, a need for attention and admiration, a sense of entitlement, and a tendency to exploit others
Why is there a renewed interest in narcissistic traits?
The APA revised the DSM, which included Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD)
What are the key symptoms of NPD?
A grandiose sense of importance, pre-occupation with fantasies of unlimited power and success, a constant need for attention, difficulty dealing with criticism, a sense of entitlement, interpersonal exploitativeness
What four assumptions is the terror management theory based on (1)?
Human cognition is unique in that it allows us to be aware of our own mortality
(2)
This creates great anxiety, which can be reduced by cultural world views that promote self-esteem and faith
(3)
These constructs give people a sense of order, context, and meaning
(4)
These, along with self-esteem, serve as buffers against the anxiety that death awareness creates
What is national character?
Links between culture and personality
Why has national character been studied for decades?
In order to determine if certain traits are more prevalent in particular cultures
What is the result of this study?
Little or no support of this view, people’s perceptions of national character seem to be rooted in inaccurate stereotypes
What is a psychological test?
A standardized measure of a sample of a person’s behaviour
What does standardization refer to?
The uniform procedures used to administer and score a test
What do test norms provide information about?
Where a score on a psychological test ranks in relation to other scores on that test
What does reliability refer to?
The measurement consistency of a test
What does validity refer to?
The ability of the test to measure what it was designed to measure
When is high reliability seen in studies?
When subjects obtain similar scores on more than one administration of a test - the measurement is consistent
What are the two main types of personality tests?
Self-report inventories and projective tests
What are self-report inventories?
Personality scales that ask individuals to answer a series of questions about their characteristic behaviour
What can be a problem with self-report inventories despite the fact that a vast range of traits can be measured?
Responses can be inaccurate
What are two common self-report inventories?
The 16 personality factor questionnaire - measures 16 basic “source traits” and the NEO inventory - designed to measure the Big Five in research and clinical settings
What are projective tests?
Individuals respond to ambiguous stimuli in ways that may reveal aspects of their personalities
What are shortcomings of projective tests despite the fact that it is more difficult for the respondent to deceive the tester?
Reliability and validity are lower
What are two common projective tests?
The Rorschach test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
What does the Rorschach test comprise?
A series of inkblot pictures - respondents are asked what they see in the inkblots
What does the TAT consist of?
A series of pictures of various scenes - respondents must tell a story that explains what is happening in the picture
