Chapter 7 - Memory

Question 1

Define Attention.

Answer 1

Involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events.

Question 2

Explain levels-of-processing theory.

Answer 2

Proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes.

Question 3

Explain shallow processing.

Answer 3

Structural encoding:

Emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus.

Question 4

Explain intermediate processing.

Answer 4

Phonemic encoding:

Emphasizes what a word sounds like.

Question 5

Explain deep processing.

Answer 5

Semantic encoding:

Emphasizes the meaning of verbal input.

Question 6

Define elaboration.

Answer 6

The linking of a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding.

Question 7

Define dual-coding theory.

Answer 7

Holds that memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall.

Question 8

Define self-referent encoding.

Answer 8

Involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant.

Question 9

Define sensory memory.

Answer 9

Preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only for a fraction of a second.

Question 10

Explain short-term memory (STM).

Answer 10

A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to 20 seconds.

Question 11

Define rehearsal.

Answer 11

The process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information.

Question 12

Define “Chunk”

Answer 12

A group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit.

Question 13

Explain working memory.

Answer 13

A limited capacity storage system that temporarily maintains and stores information by providing an interface between perception, memory, and action.

Question 14

Define working memory capacity (WMC).

Answer 14

Refers to ones ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention.

Question 15

Define Long-term memory (LTM).

Answer 15

An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time.

Question 16

Define flashbulb memories.

Answer 16

Unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events.

Question 17

Explain clustering.

Answer 17

The tendency to remember similar or related items in groups.

Question 18

Explain conceptual hierarchy.

Answer 18

A multilevel classification system based on common properties among items.

Question 19

Define Schema.

Answer 19

An organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event.

Question 20

Explain semantic network.

Answer 20

Consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link unrelated concepts.

Question 21

Explain connectionist, or parallel distributed processing (PDP), models.

Answer 21

Assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks.

Question 22

Define the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.

Answer 22

Temporarily inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that its just out of reach.

Question 23

Explain The misinformation effect.

Answer 23

Occurs when participants recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event information.

Question 24

Explain source monitoring.

Answer 24

The process of making inferences about the origins of memories.

Question 25

Explain source-monitoring error.

Answer 25

Occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source.

Question 26

Explain decay theory.

Answer 26

Proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time.

Question 27

Define interference theory.

Answer 27

Proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material.

Question 28

Explain retroactive interference.

Answer 28

Occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information.

Question 29

Explain proactive interference.

Answer 29

Occurs when previously learned information interferes with retention of new information.

Question 30

Explain the encoding specificity principle.

Answer 30

States that the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code.

Question 31

Define repression.

Answer 31

Refers to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious.

Question 32

Explain long-term potentiation.

Answer 32

Long-lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway.

Question 33

Explain retrograde amnesia.

Answer 33

Involves the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia.

Question 34

Define anterograde amnesia.

Answer 34

Involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia.

Question 35

Define consolidation.

Answer 35

The hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in long-term memory.

Question 36

Define Implicit memory.

Answer 36

Apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering.

Question 37

Define explicit memory.

Answer 37

Involves intentional recollection of previous experiences.

Question 38

Explain declarative memory.

Answer 38

System handles factual information.

Question 39

Explain non-declarative memory.

Procedural.

Answer 39

System that houses memory for actions, skills, operations, and conditioned responses.

Question 40

Define the episodic memory system.

Answer 40

Made up of chronological, temporally dated, recollections of personal experiences.

Question 41

Explain semantic memory.

Answer 41

System that contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned.

Question 42

Explain prospective memory.

Answer 42

Involves remembering to perform actions in the future.

Question 43

Explain retrospective memory.

Answer 43

Involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information.

Question 44

Explain Mnemonic devices.

Answer 44

Methods used to increase the recall of information.

Question 45

Explain the serial-position effect.

Answer 45

Occurs when subjects show better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle.

Question 46

Define the Link Method.

Answer 46

Involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together.

Question 47

Explain the method of loci.

Answer 47

Involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations.

Question 48

Explain the hindsight bias.

Answer 48

The tendency to mould our interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out.