Chapter 7: Human Memory Flashcards
What are the three key processes in human memory?
- encoding > get in
- storage > maintained
- retrieval > pulled out
What are memories and are they static?
Memories are rough constructions
- no they change over time
What is attention and what does it do?
- Focusing of awareness on a narrow range of stimuli
- Filters screen out all but select info
What is the cocktail party phenomenon?
Indicates that people are blocking out information but still are sensitive to important phenomena
> meaning that filtering/screening happens late or after the brain has processed the meaning
> in actuality it happens both early, intermediate and late
What does filtering depend on?
- cognitive load
-> high-load tasks lead to early selection
> low-load tasks more capacity for later selection
What negatively impacts both memory and task performance?
Divided attention
What is the main factor in influencing how much is remembered?
HOW people attend to info
Who came up with the levels-of-processing theory?
Craig and Lockhart
What is the Levels-of-processing theory?
That deeper processing results in longer-lasting memory codes:
1- structural encoding > physical structure
2- phonemic encoding > sound
3- Semantic encoding > meaning of verbal input
What is encoding enrichment?
- Elaboration> linking stimulus to other info when encoding
- Visual imagery> images to represent words
- Self-referent encoding> how info is personally relevant
What is the benefit of visual imagery as encoding enrichment?
2 codes are better than one
> dual-coding theory: enhanced by both semantic and visual
What is the Atkinson + Shiffrin model of memory storage?
Sensory memory> Short-term > Long-term
> retrieval occurs between STM and LTM
What is sensory memory?
- preserves info in original sensory form
- 1/4 second
- vision causes afterimage
- time to recognize stimuli
What is short-term memory?
- Limited capacity store
- 20 seconds unrehearsed
- indefinitely if rehearsed
- 7 +/- 2 items (Miller)
- more likely 4 +/- 1 items
What is the difference between maintenance and elaborative rehearsal?
- maintenance: keeps info in consciousness
- elaborative: increases probability of retaining info in future
What contribute to info loss?
- time-related decay
- interference from competing material
Why has STM capacity been overestimated in the past?
- Covert rehearsal
- Chunking
What is chunking?
Grouping familiar stimuli to store as a single unit
What do experts do to help them remember?
Chunk while encoding
What were the original features of short term memory?
Limited capacity and storage duration
What is the current model for short-term memory?
Working memory model (Badderly)
What is working memory?
A limited capacity storage system that temporarily maintains and stores info with an interface between perception, memory and action
> reconciles problem with original STM model
What are the 4 components of Badderly’s working memory model?
1- Phonological loop > maintenance rehearsal
2- Visuospatial sketchpad > holding of visual images
3- Central executive system > deploys attention and switches focus
> coordinates actions of other modules
4- Episodic buffer > temp store integrates working memory components and serves as interface with LTM
What is working memory capacity?
the ability to hold and manipulate info in conscious attention
> role in complex cognitive processes
What is long-term memory?
- unlimited capacity store
- hold info indefinitely
- no evidence that memories are stored permanently
What are flashbulb memories?
Vivid recollections of momentous events
What did flashbulb memories and ESB prove?
That memories are reconstructions and full of distortions therefore there is no proof that they are permanent or that forgetting is a retrieval failure
What is clustering?
Tendency to remember similar/related items in groups
What is a conceptual hierarchy?
multilevel classification system based on common properties among items
> can improve recall dramatically
> typically applied to factual info
What is a schema?
Organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience
> people more likely to remember things consistent with their schema
> inverse also true: things that violate schema also memorable
Why are relational schemas important?
They may be related to disorders
> low self esteem and social anxiety
>the wy you process info about others and self
What is a semantic network?
Nodes representing concepts joined together by pathways that link related concepts
> shorter pathways = stronger links
What is spreading activation?
when people think about a word and automatically think of related words
What are connectionist models?
How neural networks appear to handle info
> Parallel distributing Process (PDP)
What is the PDP model?
Assumes that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks
> large network of nodes that operate like neurons
> specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in networks
> excitatory and inhibitory signals
What can hinder accessibility of memories?
ineffective cues
What are retrieval cues?
stimuli that help gain access to memories
> jog memories
What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?
Temporary inability to remember something you know > just out of reach > about once a week > increases w age > universal > failure in retrieval
What is the encoding specificity principle?
memory for info is better when the conditions during encoding and retrieval are similar
> context cues
> applies to state and mood-dependent effects (internal state)
In studying memory of a story, what were the findings?
That distortions occurred because subjects reconstructed the story as per their established schema
What is the misinformation effect and what are the 3 stages?
When participants recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event information
1- subjects view event
2- subjects are exposed to info about the event
3- recall of OG event tested
>intentional distortions
>may be due in part to unreliability of reality monitoring
What can increase the impact of misinformaton?
Immediate recall
What is reality monitoring?
The process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources or internal sources
>one’s perceptions of actual events vs thoughts and imagination
What is the process of people wondering if something really happened?
Reality monitoring
> influenced by age
When are people more likely to believe that something did happen?
When something is easily retrieved or with sensory or contextual info
What is source monitoring?
decision at time of retrieval re where the memories came from
What is source monitoring error?
Attributing a memory to the wrong source
What is Destination memory?
Remembering what you said to whom
> more fragile because less encoding
Why is forgetting important?
- adaptive> only retain what’s relevant
- forgetting irrelevant info makes it easier to recall relevant stuff
What is forgetting caused by?
A combination of encoding, storage and retrieval defects
Who did the first study on forgetting and how was it done?
Ebbinghaus studied himself as only subject
> invented nonsense syllables (consonant-vowel-consenant) as to be uncontaminated by previous learnings
> generated the forgetting curve
What is the forgetting curve and what did it demonstrate?
- graphs retention and forgetting over time
> was too steep, real forgetting less steep at start - demonstrated importance of applied materials
- to study forgetting empirically it must be measured precisely
What is the retention interval?
Length of time bw presentation of material and measurement of forgetting
What are the 3 principle methods of measuring forgetting?
- recall > reproduction of info
- recognition > selection of previously learned info
- relearning > second memorization of same material
Why is recall harder than recognition?
- recognition tests are super sensitive measures
- recognition tests can be very easy >varies re #, plausibility and similarity of answers
What are the main reasons for forgetting?
- Ineffective coding > may never have gone in (pseudoforgetting)
> inappropriate/ineffective encoding - Decay > impermanence of memory storage
> decay theory: memory traces fade with time in physiological mechanisms (applies only to sensory and STM)
> LTM time interval and assimilated info more important than retention interval - Interference > negative impact of competing info on retention
>interference theory: forgetting due to competing material - retrieval failure > mismatch for retrieval cues with encoding (encoding specificity principle)
> transfer-appropriate processing: retrieval failures more likely when poor fit bw encoding and test measure - motivated forgetting > repression
What are the 2 types of interference?
Retroactive: when new info impairs retention of previously learned >happens during interval
Proactive: when previously learned material interferes with retention of new material
What is the encoding specificity principle?
Why are repressed memories controversial?
- absence of corroborative evidence
- hard to distinguish genuine from false
What is main argument for repressed memories?
- abuse more widespread than thought
- common for people to bury shit in their unconscious
- coping efforts can block parental abuse
- increase in recovered memories explained by increase in sensitivity to the issue
- recantation does not mean false
- victims often vascillate
- memory implantation unsubstantiated
What is the main argument against repressed memories?
- distortions in self-reporting
- difficult distinguishing not accessing memory and not being available
- suggestible people easily persuaded
- implantation of memories
- Deese-roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm > word lists where recall includes 50% of words not on list supporting the idea that false memories can be created
What is the skepticism fuelled by?
- role of hypnosis
- dream interpretations
- memories before 3
What are the conclusions of the repressed memories argument?
- false memories can be created
- some are authentic, some suggested
- spontaneous memories w relevant retrieval cues typically more genuine than memories through suggestive therapy
ALL HUMAN MEMORIES ARE IMPERFECT RECONSTRUCTIONS OF THE PAST SUBJECT TO MANY TYPES OF DISTORTIONS
What are the 7 sins of memory?
TAB- sins of omission
> Transience- weakening
> Absentmindedness- not paying attention
> Blocking- temp failure to retrieve item
MSBP- sins of commission
> Misattribution- wrong source
> Suggestibility- misinformation
> Bias- inaccuracy due to current knowledge
> Persistance- unwanted memories, haunted
Do the 7 sins indicate that memory system is a failure?
No, just cost of doing business, generally works well
> adaptive upsides exist for all of these
What is the physiological basis of memory?
The memory trace
What do specific memories depend on?
Neural circuitry
> memory results in alterations in synaptic transmissions at certain sites
> durable changes
> may depend on localized neural circuits > unique and reusable pathways > cerebellum
What is Long Term Potentiation?
LTP: long-lasting increase in nearal excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway
> support idea that memory traces consist of neural circuits
> changes in both pre and post synaptic neurons in hippocampus
What role does neurogenesis play in memory?
Neurogenesis may sculpt neural circuits
> new brain cells formed constantly in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus
> suppression of neurogenesis leads to memory impairment
> increase in neurogenesis enhances learning
> new neurons are more excitable and recruitable
> age of neurons may serve as a timestamp for memories
What other physiology can affect memory?
Hormones and protein synthesis
What are the primary structure implicated in memory?
- hippocampus- LTM
- amygdala- learned fear memories + emotional memories
- prefrontal cortex- working memory
- cerebral cortex- LTM
- left hemisphere- phonological loop
- cerebellum
What is organic amnesia?
memory loss due to head injury
> 2 types
- retrograde: loss of memories prior to event
- anterograde: loss of memories that occur after the event
What is the key area for memory in the brain?
Medial temporal lobe memory system
> first damaged by Alzheimer’s
> memory consolidation but not storage
What is consolidation?
Process of gradual conversion of info into durable memory codes for storage in LTM
> hypothetical
> in cortex
What is memory a combination of?
biochemical processes+ neural circuits+ anatomical structure
What is the difference between explicit and implicit memories?
Explicit memory- intentional recollection of previous experiences > conscious, accessed directly, 3R assessment
Implicit memory- apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering
> unconscious, accessed indirectly, assessed w relearning
> unaffected by amnesia and other stuff
What are the theories as to why explicit and implicit memories are different from each other?
- they rely on different cognitive processes in encoding and retrieval
- due to independent memory systems> declarative vs procedural
What is the declarative memory system?
handles factual info > faces, names, dates, words, concepts >explicit memories > episodic memory: chronological experiences > semantic memory: general knowledge
What is the procedural (non-declarative) memory?
Memory for actions, skills, operations, conditioned responses, reactions based on previous learning
>implicit memory
What is the support for the different operation of these systems?
-recall of factual info depends on conscious effort
> conditioned reflexes automatic
- memory for skills doesn’t decline over time
> declarative more vulnerable
- amnesiac memory loss> procedural memory often intact but declarative damaged
What is the neural basis for the distinction between declarative and procedural?
Declarative: medial temporal lobe + cortex
Procedural: cerebellum + amygdala contribute
What is hyperthymestic syndrome?
Constant haunting by episodic memories
What is the difference between prospective and retrospective memory?
Prospective- remembering to perform actions in future> to-do list (absentmindedness applies)
Retrospective- remembering events from past or previously learned info
What is constructive episodic simulation?
remembering past and simulating future draw on similar info from episodic memory> construction and elaboration
What are mneumonic devices?
methods used to increase recall of info
What is overlearning?
Continued rehearsal pf material after first mastering
What is the serial-position effect?
when subjects show better recall for items a start and end of a list
What are different types of mneumonic devices?
- Acrostics: phrases where first letters are cues
- Acronyms: word formed out of first letters
- Narrative: story w words in order
- Link method (visual): mental image with all items
- Method of loci (visual): imaginary familiar walk
- Keyword method: associate concrete word w abstract word and generate image of concrete word
What is hindsight bias?
Tendency to mould interpretation of past to fit how events actually turned out
