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Psych 289 > Chapter 7: Human Memory > Flashcards

Chapter 7: Human Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the three key processes in human memory?

A
  • encoding > get in
  • storage > maintained
  • retrieval > pulled out
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2
Q

What are memories and are they static?

A

Memories are rough constructions

- no they change over time

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3
Q

What is attention and what does it do?

A
  • Focusing of awareness on a narrow range of stimuli

- Filters screen out all but select info

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4
Q

What is the cocktail party phenomenon?

A

Indicates that people are blocking out information but still are sensitive to important phenomena
> meaning that filtering/screening happens late or after the brain has processed the meaning
> in actuality it happens both early, intermediate and late

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5
Q

What does filtering depend on?

A
  • cognitive load
    -> high-load tasks lead to early selection
    > low-load tasks more capacity for later selection
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6
Q

What negatively impacts both memory and task performance?

A

Divided attention

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7
Q

What is the main factor in influencing how much is remembered?

A

HOW people attend to info

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8
Q

Who came up with the levels-of-processing theory?

A

Craig and Lockhart

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9
Q

What is the Levels-of-processing theory?

A

That deeper processing results in longer-lasting memory codes:
1- structural encoding > physical structure
2- phonemic encoding > sound
3- Semantic encoding > meaning of verbal input

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10
Q

What is encoding enrichment?

A
  • Elaboration> linking stimulus to other info when encoding
  • Visual imagery> images to represent words
  • Self-referent encoding> how info is personally relevant
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11
Q

What is the benefit of visual imagery as encoding enrichment?

A

2 codes are better than one

> dual-coding theory: enhanced by both semantic and visual

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12
Q

What is the Atkinson + Shiffrin model of memory storage?

A

Sensory memory> Short-term > Long-term

> retrieval occurs between STM and LTM

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13
Q

What is sensory memory?

A
  • preserves info in original sensory form
  • 1/4 second
  • vision causes afterimage
  • time to recognize stimuli
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14
Q

What is short-term memory?

A
  • Limited capacity store
  • 20 seconds unrehearsed
  • indefinitely if rehearsed
  • 7 +/- 2 items (Miller)
  • more likely 4 +/- 1 items
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15
Q

What is the difference between maintenance and elaborative rehearsal?

A
  • maintenance: keeps info in consciousness

- elaborative: increases probability of retaining info in future

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16
Q

What contribute to info loss?

A
  • time-related decay

- interference from competing material

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17
Q

Why has STM capacity been overestimated in the past?

A
  • Covert rehearsal

- Chunking

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18
Q

What is chunking?

A

Grouping familiar stimuli to store as a single unit

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19
Q

What do experts do to help them remember?

A

Chunk while encoding

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20
Q

What were the original features of short term memory?

A

Limited capacity and storage duration

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21
Q

What is the current model for short-term memory?

A

Working memory model (Badderly)

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22
Q

What is working memory?

A

A limited capacity storage system that temporarily maintains and stores info with an interface between perception, memory and action
> reconciles problem with original STM model

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23
Q

What are the 4 components of Badderly’s working memory model?

A

1- Phonological loop > maintenance rehearsal
2- Visuospatial sketchpad > holding of visual images
3- Central executive system > deploys attention and switches focus
> coordinates actions of other modules
4- Episodic buffer > temp store integrates working memory components and serves as interface with LTM

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24
Q

What is working memory capacity?

A

the ability to hold and manipulate info in conscious attention
> role in complex cognitive processes

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25
Q

What is long-term memory?

A
  • unlimited capacity store
  • hold info indefinitely
  • no evidence that memories are stored permanently
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26
Q

What are flashbulb memories?

A

Vivid recollections of momentous events

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27
Q

What did flashbulb memories and ESB prove?

A

That memories are reconstructions and full of distortions therefore there is no proof that they are permanent or that forgetting is a retrieval failure

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28
Q

What is clustering?

A

Tendency to remember similar/related items in groups

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29
Q

What is a conceptual hierarchy?

A

multilevel classification system based on common properties among items
> can improve recall dramatically
> typically applied to factual info

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30
Q

What is a schema?

A

Organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience
> people more likely to remember things consistent with their schema
> inverse also true: things that violate schema also memorable

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31
Q

Why are relational schemas important?

A

They may be related to disorders
> low self esteem and social anxiety
>the wy you process info about others and self

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32
Q

What is a semantic network?

A

Nodes representing concepts joined together by pathways that link related concepts
> shorter pathways = stronger links

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33
Q

What is spreading activation?

A

when people think about a word and automatically think of related words

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34
Q

What are connectionist models?

A

How neural networks appear to handle info

> Parallel distributing Process (PDP)

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35
Q

What is the PDP model?

A

Assumes that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks
> large network of nodes that operate like neurons
> specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in networks
> excitatory and inhibitory signals

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36
Q

What can hinder accessibility of memories?

A

ineffective cues

37
Q

What are retrieval cues?

A

stimuli that help gain access to memories

> jog memories

38
Q

What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?

A 
Temporary inability to remember something you know 
> just out of reach
> about once a week
> increases w age
> universal
> failure in retrieval
39
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A

memory for info is better when the conditions during encoding and retrieval are similar
> context cues
> applies to state and mood-dependent effects (internal state)

40
Q

In studying memory of a story, what were the findings?

A

That distortions occurred because subjects reconstructed the story as per their established schema

41
Q

What is the misinformation effect and what are the 3 stages?

A

When participants recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event information
1- subjects view event
2- subjects are exposed to info about the event
3- recall of OG event tested
>intentional distortions
>may be due in part to unreliability of reality monitoring

42
Q

What can increase the impact of misinformaton?

A

Immediate recall

43
Q

What is reality monitoring?

A

The process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources or internal sources
>one’s perceptions of actual events vs thoughts and imagination

44
Q

What is the process of people wondering if something really happened?

A

Reality monitoring

> influenced by age

45
Q

When are people more likely to believe that something did happen?

A

When something is easily retrieved or with sensory or contextual info

46
Q

What is source monitoring?

A

decision at time of retrieval re where the memories came from

47
Q

What is source monitoring error?

A

Attributing a memory to the wrong source

48
Q

What is Destination memory?

A

Remembering what you said to whom

> more fragile because less encoding

49
Q

Why is forgetting important?

A
  • adaptive> only retain what’s relevant

- forgetting irrelevant info makes it easier to recall relevant stuff

50
Q

What is forgetting caused by?

A

A combination of encoding, storage and retrieval defects

51
Q

Who did the first study on forgetting and how was it done?

A

Ebbinghaus studied himself as only subject
> invented nonsense syllables (consonant-vowel-consenant) as to be uncontaminated by previous learnings
> generated the forgetting curve

52
Q

What is the forgetting curve and what did it demonstrate?

A
  • graphs retention and forgetting over time
    > was too steep, real forgetting less steep at start
  • demonstrated importance of applied materials
  • to study forgetting empirically it must be measured precisely
53
Q

What is the retention interval?

A

Length of time bw presentation of material and measurement of forgetting

54
Q

What are the 3 principle methods of measuring forgetting?

A
  • recall > reproduction of info
  • recognition > selection of previously learned info
  • relearning > second memorization of same material
55
Q

Why is recall harder than recognition?

A
  • recognition tests are super sensitive measures

- recognition tests can be very easy >varies re #, plausibility and similarity of answers

56
Q

What are the main reasons for forgetting?

A
  • Ineffective coding > may never have gone in (pseudoforgetting)
    > inappropriate/ineffective encoding
  • Decay > impermanence of memory storage
    > decay theory: memory traces fade with time in physiological mechanisms (applies only to sensory and STM)
    > LTM time interval and assimilated info more important than retention interval
  • Interference > negative impact of competing info on retention
    >interference theory: forgetting due to competing material
  • retrieval failure > mismatch for retrieval cues with encoding (encoding specificity principle)
    > transfer-appropriate processing: retrieval failures more likely when poor fit bw encoding and test measure
  • motivated forgetting > repression
57
Q

What are the 2 types of interference?

A

Retroactive: when new info impairs retention of previously learned >happens during interval
Proactive: when previously learned material interferes with retention of new material

58
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A
59
Q

Why are repressed memories controversial?

A
  • absence of corroborative evidence

- hard to distinguish genuine from false

60
Q

What is main argument for repressed memories?

A
  • abuse more widespread than thought
  • common for people to bury shit in their unconscious
  • coping efforts can block parental abuse
  • increase in recovered memories explained by increase in sensitivity to the issue
  • recantation does not mean false
  • victims often vascillate
  • memory implantation unsubstantiated
61
Q

What is the main argument against repressed memories?

A
  • distortions in self-reporting
  • difficult distinguishing not accessing memory and not being available
  • suggestible people easily persuaded
  • implantation of memories
  • Deese-roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm > word lists where recall includes 50% of words not on list supporting the idea that false memories can be created
62
Q

What is the skepticism fuelled by?

A
  • role of hypnosis
  • dream interpretations
  • memories before 3
63
Q

What are the conclusions of the repressed memories argument?

A
  • false memories can be created
  • some are authentic, some suggested
  • spontaneous memories w relevant retrieval cues typically more genuine than memories through suggestive therapy
    ALL HUMAN MEMORIES ARE IMPERFECT RECONSTRUCTIONS OF THE PAST SUBJECT TO MANY TYPES OF DISTORTIONS
64
Q

What are the 7 sins of memory?

A

TAB- sins of omission
> Transience- weakening
> Absentmindedness- not paying attention
> Blocking- temp failure to retrieve item
MSBP- sins of commission
> Misattribution- wrong source
> Suggestibility- misinformation
> Bias- inaccuracy due to current knowledge
> Persistance- unwanted memories, haunted

65
Q

Do the 7 sins indicate that memory system is a failure?

A

No, just cost of doing business, generally works well

> adaptive upsides exist for all of these

66
Q

What is the physiological basis of memory?

A

The memory trace

67
Q

What do specific memories depend on?

A

Neural circuitry
> memory results in alterations in synaptic transmissions at certain sites
> durable changes
> may depend on localized neural circuits > unique and reusable pathways > cerebellum

68
Q

What is Long Term Potentiation?

A

LTP: long-lasting increase in nearal excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway
> support idea that memory traces consist of neural circuits
> changes in both pre and post synaptic neurons in hippocampus

69
Q

What role does neurogenesis play in memory?

A

Neurogenesis may sculpt neural circuits
> new brain cells formed constantly in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus
> suppression of neurogenesis leads to memory impairment
> increase in neurogenesis enhances learning
> new neurons are more excitable and recruitable
> age of neurons may serve as a timestamp for memories

70
Q

What other physiology can affect memory?

A

Hormones and protein synthesis

71
Q

What are the primary structure implicated in memory?

A
  • hippocampus- LTM
  • amygdala- learned fear memories + emotional memories
  • prefrontal cortex- working memory
  • cerebral cortex- LTM
  • left hemisphere- phonological loop
  • cerebellum
72
Q

What is organic amnesia?

A

memory loss due to head injury
> 2 types
- retrograde: loss of memories prior to event
- anterograde: loss of memories that occur after the event

73
Q

What is the key area for memory in the brain?

A

Medial temporal lobe memory system
> first damaged by Alzheimer’s
> memory consolidation but not storage

74
Q

What is consolidation?

A

Process of gradual conversion of info into durable memory codes for storage in LTM
> hypothetical
> in cortex

75
Q

What is memory a combination of?

A

biochemical processes+ neural circuits+ anatomical structure

76
Q

What is the difference between explicit and implicit memories?

A

Explicit memory- intentional recollection of previous experiences > conscious, accessed directly, 3R assessment
Implicit memory- apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering
> unconscious, accessed indirectly, assessed w relearning
> unaffected by amnesia and other stuff

77
Q

What are the theories as to why explicit and implicit memories are different from each other?

A
  • they rely on different cognitive processes in encoding and retrieval
  • due to independent memory systems> declarative vs procedural
78
Q

What is the declarative memory system?

A 
handles factual info
> faces, names, dates, words, concepts
>explicit memories
> episodic memory: chronological experiences
> semantic memory: general knowledge
79
Q

What is the procedural (non-declarative) memory?

A

Memory for actions, skills, operations, conditioned responses, reactions based on previous learning
>implicit memory

80
Q

What is the support for the different operation of these systems?

A

-recall of factual info depends on conscious effort
> conditioned reflexes automatic
- memory for skills doesn’t decline over time
> declarative more vulnerable
- amnesiac memory loss> procedural memory often intact but declarative damaged

81
Q

What is the neural basis for the distinction between declarative and procedural?

A

Declarative: medial temporal lobe + cortex
Procedural: cerebellum + amygdala contribute

82
Q

What is hyperthymestic syndrome?

A

Constant haunting by episodic memories

83
Q

What is the difference between prospective and retrospective memory?

A

Prospective- remembering to perform actions in future> to-do list (absentmindedness applies)
Retrospective- remembering events from past or previously learned info

84
Q

What is constructive episodic simulation?

A

remembering past and simulating future draw on similar info from episodic memory> construction and elaboration

85
Q

What are mneumonic devices?

A

methods used to increase recall of info

86
Q

What is overlearning?

A

Continued rehearsal pf material after first mastering

87
Q

What is the serial-position effect?

A

when subjects show better recall for items a start and end of a list

88
Q

What are different types of mneumonic devices?

A
  • Acrostics: phrases where first letters are cues
  • Acronyms: word formed out of first letters
  • Narrative: story w words in order
  • Link method (visual): mental image with all items
  • Method of loci (visual): imaginary familiar walk
  • Keyword method: associate concrete word w abstract word and generate image of concrete word
89
Q

What is hindsight bias?

A

Tendency to mould interpretation of past to fit how events actually turned out

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