Chapter 2: Research Enterprise Flashcards
What are the goals of the scientific enterprise?
1- Measurement and description
2- Understanding and prediction
3- Application & control
What is the aim of measurement and description, in the goal of science?
To develop measurement techniques that make it possible to describe behaviour clearly & precisely
What is assumed and needed in understanding and prediction, in the goal of science?
Events can be understood when one can explain the reasons for the occurrence of the events, a hypothesis is tested to evaluate understanding
What is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables?
A hypothesis, also known as a prediction derived from a theory.
What are any measurable conditions, events, characteristics or behaviours that are controlled or observed in a study?
Variables
What does application and control mean, in the goal of science?
That understanding a phenomenon enables one to exert more control over that phenomenon and is achieved by constructing theories, testing hypotheses, and applying research findings to practical problems
What do theories permit psychologists to do?
Leap from description to understanding by integrating unrelated facts and principles into a coherent whole
What is the pace of constructing a theory?
Gradual, iterative and subject to revision
What is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations?
A theory
What is essential to a scientific theory?
That it be testable
Can a theory be tested all at once?
No, they’re typically too complex and must test a couple hypotheses at a time
What are the steps in a scientific investigation?
1- Formulate a testable hypothesis 2- Select research method and design study 3- Collect the data 4- Analyze the data and draw conclusions 5- Report the findings
What is the essential nature of scientific investigation?
It is systematic
What are the two requirements for testing a hypothesis?
They must be formulated precisely and the variables must be clearly identified
What describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable and establish precisely what is meant by each variable in the context of the study?
Operational definition
What is the purpose of the second step in the scientific investigation?
To determine how to put the hypothesis to the empirical test
What are persons or animals whose behaviour is systematically observed in a study?
Participants or subjects
What are procedures for making empirical observations and measurements?
Data collection techniques
What are the primary data collection techniques?
- direct observation
- Questionnaire
- Interview
- Psychological test (standardized, mental/personality)
- Physiological recording
- Examination of archival records
What occurs during data analysis?
observations are converted into numbers to form raw data that informs statistics
What’s used to analyze data and determine whether a hypothesis is supported?
Statistics
What is a fundamental aspect of the scientific enterprise?
publication of findings
What is the final step in scientific investigation?
Write a concise summary of the study and its findings for delivery either via publication or at a conference
What are the two major advantages to the scientific approach?
- Clarity & precision (exact specification)
- Intolerance of error (good benchmark, accurate and dependable)
What is a periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry?
A journal
What are various approaches to the observation, measurement, manipulation and control of variables in empirical studies?
Research methods
What are the two types of research methods used in psychology?
Experimental research methods and descriptive/correlational research methods
What is the research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result?
The experiment
What does an experiment enable researchers to do?
Detect cause-and-effect relationships
What is the purpose of an experiment?
To find out whether changes in one variable (X) causes changes in another variable (Y)
What are x & y known as in the experiment?
The independent and dependent variables, respectively
What is a condition or event that an experimenter manipulates/varies to see its impact on another variable?
The independent variable (IV)
Why is the x variable called ‘independent’?
Because it is free to be varied by the experimenter
What is the variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable?
The dependent variable (DV)
Why is the y variable called ‘dependent’?
Because it ‘depends’ on the manipulations of the independent variable
What is a typical DV?
The measurement of a subject’s behaviour
What are the two typical groups in an experiment?
Experimental and Control groups
What is the group of subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the IV?
The experimental group
What is the group of subjects that do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group?
The control group
What is the Logic underlying the experimental method?
That if the two groups are alike in all respects except for the variation created by the manipulation of the IV, then any differences between the two groups on the DV must be due to manipulation of the IV
How must the experimental and control groups be alike?
Only on dimensions relevant to the DV
What are any variables other than the IV that seem likely to influence the DV in a specific study?
Extraneous variables
What occurs when two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects?
The confounding of variables
When is it difficult for a researcher to tell which variables are effecting the DV?
When an extraneous variable is confounded with an IV
What is a safeguard that is used to control for extraneous variables?
Random assignment of subjects
Why is it good to use random assignment in an experiment?
It increases confidence that the groups will be similar in most ways
What occurs when all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study?
Random assignment
What are the main variations in designing experiments?
1- one subject group can be used to serve as their own control group
2- manipulation of one or more independent variables in a single experiment
3- use of one or more dependent variables in a single study
What is a within-subjects design?
When comparisons are made within the same group of participants
What is a between-subjects design?
When comparisons are made between two different groups of participants
What is the advantage to manipulating more than one IV?
It permits the experimenter to see if two variables interact
What is the advantage to using more than one DV?
A more complete picture of how the experimental manipulations affect subjects’ behaviour
What is the main advantage of experimental research?
It permits conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between variables
by allowing the relationship between the IV and the DV to be isolated while neutralizing the effects of extraneous variables
What are the main disadvantages of experimental research?
1- Experiments are often artificial
2- Experimental method can’t be used to explore some research questions due to ethical concerns or practical realities
What is one way to address the artificial limitations of lab experiments?
Use field experiments that use settings similar to or occurring in real life
What is a limitation of field experiments?
Control of EVs is sacrificed for generalizability
Who is Stanley Schachter?
Conducted experiment with students that determined that anxiety increases the desire to be around others by inducing anxiety with the expectation of painful shocks vs painless shocks
What are the steps to performing an experiment?
1- Formulate hypothesis 2- Random assignment of subjects 3- Manipulate IV 4- Measure the DV 5- Draw Conclusions
What is the Stroop test?
Devised in 1935 to explore how automatic processes can sometimes interfere with the thinking needed to complete a task by using colours and words
What are the types of descriptive/correlational research?
1- Naturalistic observation
2- Case studies
3- Surveys
What are studies in which variables cannot be manipulated by the researcher?
Descriptive/correlational research
What can descriptive/correlational research NOT do?
It cannot demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships
What can descriptive/correlational research DO?
Allows only the description of patterns of behaviour and discovered links or associations between variables
What is the careful observation of behaviour without direct intervention with the research subjects?
Naturalistic observation
What are the strengths of naturalistic observation?
- behaviour can be studied under less artifical conditions
- can represent good starting point when little is known about the behaviour
- can be used to study animal behaviour
What are the weaknesses of naturalistic observation?
- researchers have trouble being unobtrusive so that subjects don’t alter their behaviour (reactivity)
- can be hard to convert results into numerical data for statistical analysis
What is it when a subject’s behaviour changes due to the presence of an observer?
Reactivity
What are in-depth investigations of individual subjects?
Case studies
What are psychological autopsies?
Case studies of suicide victims
What are typical techniques of case studies?
- interviewing subjects
- interviewing those close to the subjects
- examination of records
- psychological testing
What are the strengths of case studies?
- well-suited to investigating psychological disorders and neuropsychological issues
- can give compelling real-life illustrations that bolster a hypothesis or theory
What are the weaknesses of case studies?
- can be highly subjective
- info from multiple sources must be combined in an impressionistic way that enables selective focus by the clinician (they see what they want to see)
Why do clinicians routinely case study their clients?
They’re looking for patterns of general conclusions from a collection of case studies
What are questionnaires or interviews used to gather info about specific aspects of participants behaviour?
Surveys
What are the strengths of surveys?
- used to obtain info re aspects of behaviour that are difficult to observe directly
- easy to collect data on attitudes and opinions from large samples
What are the weaknesses of case studies?
- depend on self-reporting
- can be distorted by intentional deception, data, wishful thinking, memory lapses and poorly worded questions
- Not all surveys are conducted with care
- sampling bias
What is sampling bias?
occurs when a sample is based on a non-representative group of the population it is trying to describe
What are the advantages of descriptive/correlational research?
- gives researchers a way to explore questions that could not be examined with experimental procedures
- broadens the scope of phenomena that psychologists are able to study
What is the one disadvantage of descriptive/correlational research?
- cannot demonstrate causal relationship bw two variables because events cannot be controlled to isolate cause and effect
What is the use of mathematics to organize, summarize and interpret numerical data?
Statistics
What does statistical analysis enable researchers to do?
Draw conclusions based on their observations
What are the two types of statistics?
Descriptive and inferential
What are descriptive statistics used for?
Organizing and summarizing data
What are the key descriptive statistics?
- central tendency
- variability
- coefficient of correlation
What is central tendency?
Three measures that indicate the typical score: median, mean and mode
What is the median?
The score that falls exactly in the centre of a distribution of scores
What is the mean?
The arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution
What is the mode?
The most frequent score in a distribution
What is the most useful measure of central tendency?
The mean because additional statistical manipulations can be performed from it
What is the drawback to using the mean?
It is sensitive to extremes/outliers
What is the line figure used to present data from a frequency distribution?
Frequency polygon
What is the bar graph that presents frequency data?
Histogram
What is an orderly arrangement of scores indicating the frequency of each or group of scores?
Frequency distribution
What does it mean when a frequency distribution is symmetrical?
That the measures of central tendency converge
What is indicated when a frequency distribution has a tail?
That the distribution is skewed
What happens in a negatively skewed distribution?
The scores pile up at the high end
What happens in a positively skewed distribution?
The scores pile up at the low end
What is the best measure to use when a frequency distribution is skewed?
The median
What does it mean when a frequency distribution is symmetrical?
That the measures of central tendency converge
What is indicated when a frequency distribution has a tail?
That the distribution is skewed
What happens in a negatively skewed distribution?
The scores pile up at the high end
What happens in a positively skewed distribution?
The scores pile up at the low end
What is the best measure to use when a frequency distribution is skewed?
The median
What is the term that refers to how much the scores in a set of data vary from each other and from the mean?
Variability
What are the measures of variability and which is the most useful?
- Range
- Standard deviation * most useful
How is the range calculated?
By subtracting the lowest score from the highest
What is the name for the index of the amount of variability in a data set?
Standard deviation
What is the standard deviation most useful for?
determining whether the results support the hypothesis.
What is the curve that represents the pattern in which many human characteristics are dispersed in the population?
Normal distribution aka the bell curve
What is the division of scores fall in a normal distribution?
They cluster near the mean/centre w 68% within 1 SD from mean and 95% within 2 SD
What does a percentile score indicate?
The percentage of people who score at or below a score
What is the effect called when two variables are related to each other?
Correlation
What is the numerical index used to indicate the degree of relationship between two variables?
Correlation coefficient
What does the correlation coefficient indicate?
- strength of relationship
- direction of relationship
What do positive and negative correlations mean?
+ two variables vary in the same direction
- two variables vary in opposite direction
How is the strength of a correlation indicated?
By the value’s proximity to 0 or 1/-1, 0 being no correlation (weak) and 1 being full (strong)
What is the relationship between correlation and predictive value and what is used to predict?
- The stronger the correlation the greater the ability to predict the % of variation in the correlating variable
- Coefficient of determination (CC2)
What are the problems with correlation?
- Third variable problem
- correlation does not = causation
What are inferential statistics used for?
Interpretation of data and evaluating whether results are due to fluctuations in chance
What is statistical significance?
When the probability is very low that observed findings are due to chance ( > 5 or 0.05)
What effect can personal bias have on designing and interpreting studies and how can you counteract?
Can distort results but findings can be verified through replication
What is a technique used in making sense of inconsistent results?
Meta-analysis which combines the statistical results of many studies re the same question and tests the generalizability and strengths of variables effects
What are the common flaws in research?
- Sampling bias: does not represent population
- Placebo effect: subject expectations lead to physiological/psych changes
- Distortions in self-reporting
- Experimenter bias
What does empirical research assume about a sample?
That the sample if representative of the relevant population
What are the common distortions in self-reporting?
- Social desirability bias (counteract with implicit measures)
- memory errors
- misunderstanding of questions
- response sets (unrelated responses)
- Halo effect (judgment of one things spills over to judgments)
What can neutralize experimenter bias?
Double-blind procedures where neither the experimenter nor subjects know who is control or exp group
What were the findings of Robert Rosenthal?
That experimenter bias may lead researchers to unintentionally influence the behaviour of their subjects.
What is internet-mediated research?
studies where data collection is done online
What is internet-mediated research?
Studies where data collection is done online
What is methodological behaviourism and why did it become unpopular?
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The belief that complete objectivity can be achieved by studying only observable behaviour however it became recognized that inner psychological functioning should not be ignored
Are IVs and DVs always chosen objectively?
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No
What is the null hypothesis?
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The assumption that any difference in control vs exp groups are due merely to chance
What does it mean to reject the null hypothesis?
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To assume that findings are statistically significant and not due only to chance
What are the advantages of web data collection?
- Larger and more diverse samples can be reached
- Access to sizable samples of special populations
- Online surveys can operate 24/7 with no lab or assistants
- Can reduce costs and save time*
- opportunity for observation of naturalistic behaviour
What are the weaknesses of web data collection?
- Sampling bias due to access and age
- Lower participation rates
- Self-selected volunteers may be systematically different than those getting out
- Sampling bias due to self-selection
- Higher-drop out rates
- Less controlled conditions
What might reduce social desirability bias in web surveys?
Increased anonymity
What is the basis for ethical dilemmas?
concern re inflicting harm on subject particularly re use of deception with humans
What is the critical argument against deception and defence of?
Lying is inherently immoral, may cause distress and undermine sense of subject’s trust in others
Defence is that some important issues could not be investigated without it
What are the 4 principle ethical guidelines by the CPA?
1- Respect for dignity of persons
2- Responsible caring
3- Integrity in relationships
4- Responsibility to society
What is the problem with parental consent to participate in research?
may introduce self-selection bias
What are personal stories about specific incidents & experiences?
Anecdotal evidence
Why is anecdotal evidence persuasive?
They are concrete, vivid and memorable
What is optimal decision making based on?
Evidence-based decision making
What is a graph in which paired x & y scores for each subject are plotted as single points?
Scatter diagram
When can animal subjects ethically be used?
Minimize discomforts and when there is a strong expectation that the results will benefit both humans and animals
What are the advantages of only using one group of subjects (within-subjects design)?
Ensure that subjects are alike in both control and exp groups re any extraneous variables
What is the standard organization of a journal article?
- Abstract
- Intro
- Method
- Results
- Discussion
- References
What is the problem with using anecdotal evidence?
- Sample of one, case study
- Self-reporting data, often about other people (hearsay)
