Chapter 5: Variations in Consciousness Flashcards
What is the term for the awareness of internal and external stimuli?
Counciousness
What can dictate the thoughts in the stream of consciousness?
Intention
> attention could be a unifying concept in psychology
What is one of the most fundamental issues in science?
Consciousness and its basis in neural cell assemblies
Where does almost all human behaviour come from?
A mix of conscious and unconscious processing
Are consciousness and attention the same?
No, you can have one without the other
What is people’s experience of task-unrelated thoughts?
Mind Wandering
>15-50% of the time
> less likely if task requires more cognitive resources
> linked to creativity
What is the difference between controlled and automatic processes?
-Controlled: thoughts we exert some control over> intentional
- Automatic: happens without our intention/control/effotr
>implicit processes
What is the theory that under some circumstances, the quality of decisions made under conditions when people can’t engage in conscious thought can be more accurate?
Theory of unconscious thought
> distraction from conscious deliberation can enhance decisions
What is the key to distinguishing between conscious and unconscious?
Attention
From what does consciousness arise?
activity in distributed networks of neural pathways
How is conscious thought constrained?
By capacity limitations
> Only a small subset of relevant info is considered
> Unconscious doesn’t have same constraints
What instrument is use to explore the connection between brain activity and levels of consciousness?
EEG
What are the 4 principle bands of brainwaves and corresponding frequencies?
- Beta > 13-24 cps: waking thought/problem solving
- Alpha > 8-12 cps: deep relaxation/meditation
- Theta > 4-7 cps: light sleep
- Delta> > 4 cps: deep sleep
> reflect different states of consciousness
Who discovered REM sleep, started the first sleep lab and transformed research from the study of dreams to the study of the nature of sleep and sleep problems?
William Dement
What are periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning known as?
Biological rhythms, biological clocks
What is the 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species?
Circadian rhythm
What does the circadian rhythm influence in the body?
- Sleep
- blood pressure
- urine production
- hormonal secretions
- short-term memory
- alertness
- cognitive performance
What are some of the main schedules for circadian-ruled functions?
- Alertness grows through the day and peaks at 6pm > linked with body temp
- Core body temp is low during sleep and rises with waking
- Growth hormone secretion occurs during sleep
What happens when subjects are cut off from time cues of 24hr day?
Circadian rhythms persist but cycle runs a little longer- closer to 25hr
What solutions are provided to counteract effects of shift work and which is most effective?
- melatonin> timing of dose is crucial
- light exposure> timing crucial
- scheduling shifts with progressively later start times + longer periods between shift changes
> scheduling shift changes most effective
What tools of measurement are used in a sleep lab?
- EEG
- EMG (electromyograph) > muscular tension
- EOG (electrooculograph) > eye movements
What are the 5 stages of sleep?
Stage 1: 1-7 mins > alpha waves to theta waves
>muscle tension and temp drop
>hypnic jerks
Stage 2: 10-25 mins > mix of brainwaves
> sleep spindles on EEG
Stage 3 + 4: reached in 30 mins > delta waves
> slow-wave sleep
> maintained for 30 mins
Stage 5: REM sleep > beta waves
> first cycle a few minutes > subsequent cycles progressively longer- 40-60 mins
> lateral side-to-side movements of the eyes
> hard to awaken from
> irregular breathing and pulse
> sleeper virtually paralyzed
> high dream recall (78%)
What is slow-wave sleep?
Sleep stages 3 + 4 when high-amplitude low-frequency delta waves dominate
What happens after Stage 4 is complete?
The cycle reverses back up through Stage 2 after which stage 5 is entered
What other important functions does sleep serve?
- consolidate memories acquired during the day
- different types of learning
What is referred to as Non-REM sleep?
Sleep Stages 1-4
How many sleep cycles occur in one night?
4
When do posture changes occur during sleep?
Between REM periods
As the night progresses what happens to the REM periods?
REM periods get longer while Non-REM gets shallower
>REM dominates second half of night
What is particular to the final REM period?
- fastest eye movements
- dreams best remembered
What is the split of slow wave and REM sleep for young adults?
- slow wave: 15-20%
- REM 20-25%
What is the term for how quickly one falls asleep, how long stays asleep and how one cycles through stages?
The architecture of sleep
What stages of sleep do newborns experience?
2 stages: REM and Non-REM
> sleep 6-8 times in 24 hrs
> more than 16 hrs of sleep in one night
What is the split of REM sleep between babies and adults?
- 50% babies
- 20% adults
How does REM sleep change in infants and children?
1yr: 50% > 30%
1-5yrs: 30% > 20% gradually
What is the key feature of sleep patterns with aging?
- Proportion of REM sleep stays stable
- slow wave declines
- Stage 1 increases slightly
- average total sleep time decreases
- affects men more than women
What is a key conclusion of the effects of aging on sleep quality?
Growing older itself does not lead to poor sleep if remain healthy
> to do with increase in health problems that interfere with sleep
What are cultural differences in sleep?
- Co-sleeping very common in Non-western world
- napping customs > siesta, may be adaptive
What structures regulate the rhythm of sleeping and waking?
Subcoritcal areas > reticular formation
What is the system that consists of afferent fibres running through the reticular formation that influences physiological arousal?
ARAS= ascending reticular activating system
What happens when the ARAS fibres are cut and stimulated?
- Cut: continuous sleep
- Stimulated: arousal and alertness
What structures regulate the rhythm of sleeping and waking?
- reticular formation
- pons
- hypothalamus
- medulla, thalamus, basal forebrain control sleep and neurotransmitters
What is the system that consists of afferent fibres running through the reticular formation that influences physiological arousal?
ARAS= ascending reticular activating system
What is the paradox of sleep deprivation?
It is not as detrimental as thought but has major social implications
> puts all health at risk
What do the effects of sleep deprivation depend on?
- amount of sleep lost
- task at hand
What do people who are sleep deprived often think?
That they are performing normally
> results in lapses of judgement
What effects does sleep deprivation have on emotions?
- more reactivity
- emotional jello
- possible link to psychopathy
- active and isolated amygdalas
What happens when subjects are REM sleep deprived?
They will spontaneously go into REM sleep more frequently
> rebound effect occurs where they will spend more time in REM over 1-3 nights
> similar effect with slow wave deprivation
What is one of the effects of REM on cells?
Fosters neurogenesis > hippocampus
What is the mortality risk associated with sleep loss?
Increased mortality < 7 hrs and > 8hrs
> highest mortality for people sleeping > 10hrs
> could be a marker of other problems
What are the main types of sleep disorders?
- insomnia
- narcolepsy
- sleep apnea
- nightmares
- night terrors
- somnambulism
- REM sleep behaviour disorder
What are the 3 patterns of insomnia and what is likely the primary cause?
1- falling asleep
2- remaining asleep
3- early awakening
> hyper arousal may be primary cause >hormonal patterns
What is pseudo-insomnia?
When people think they are getting inadequate sleep when they’re not
What is the common treatment for insomnia and what is very successful?
2 types of sedatives:
- benzodiazipine (anti-anxiety)
- Non-benzo (sleep problems)
> poor long-term solution
- psychology based treatments such as relaxation and behavioural intervention are effective in short-term and have long-lasting benefits
What occurs during narcolepsy?
A person goes directly from wakefulness to REM sleep > 10-20mins >0.05% of population > treated w stimulants > can be genetically predisposed
What are the key qualifiers of sleep apnea?
- stopping breathing for at least 10 seconds at least 5 times per hour
What effect can sleep apnea have on health?
increases vulnerability to hypertension, heart disease and stroke
What are night terrors?
abrupt awakening from Non-REM sleep + intense autonomic arousal + panic
> occur in Stage 4
> don’t recall coherent dream
> common in children 3-8yrs
When does sleep walking most often occur in a night?
In first two hours of sleep
> lasts 15-30 mins
> occurs during slow wave
Which disorders can be a genetic disposition?
- Somnambulism
- Narcolepsy
What occurs during REM sleep behaviour disorder (RBD)?
- troublesome dream enactments during REM
> yelling + jumping
> violent and can hurt themselves or partner
What is the cause of RBD, who does it afflict and how is it treated?
- deterioration in the brainstem structures responsible for REM immobilization
- Men 50-60
- treatment difficult and concurrent with other syndromes
What is a universal feature in dreams?
A coherent sense of self
> first-person perspective
What are interesting findings of dream studies?
- people are more tolerant of logical discrepancies
- typically in familiar settings and people
- generally coherent and realistic worlds
What are more common for female dreams?
- negative perspective
- phobias
- anxiety
- control issues
> reflect conventional gender roles
What is the progression of children’s dream recall?
- recall after REM 20-30% > increases to 80% bw 9-11 yrs
- under 5 yrs > bland and no story
- 5-8 yrs report narratives but lacking in development and aggression/misfortune
- 11-13 dreams become more adult-like
How do dreams relate to cognition?
Dreaming is a cognitive ability that develops gradually like other cognitive abilities
What is the spill-over of waking life into dream content?
Daily residue
What is the state when people realise they are dreaming while inside the dream?
Lucid dreaming
How are dreams perceived in non-western cultures?
- importance to self or spirit
- systems for interpretations vary
- contents vary because societies deal with different worlds
What are the primary dream theories?
- Freud > dreams as wish fulfillment
- Cartwright > Cognitive Problem Solving View: engage in creative thinking unrestrained by logic and realism
- Hobson/McCarley > Activation-synthesis model: dreams are side-effects of neural activation that produces beta waves
What makes it difficult to test theories?
Private subjective nature of dreams
What is the main criticism of the Cognitive problem solving view of dreams?
people don’t always dream up solutions
What is the main criticism of the Activation-synthesis model of dreams?
It cannot account for Non-REM dreaming and contents more meaningful than model predicts
What did Franz Mesmer do?
Claimed he could cure illness w the power of suggestion
Who practically applied hypnosis for the first time in medicine and how?
- James Braid
- used as anaesthetic
What is the systemic procedure that produces a heightened state of suggestibility?
Hypnosis
Hypnosis is ________?
Induced
What is the SHSS?
Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale
> shows few are highly susceptible 10-15%
What are the 3 components of susceptibility to hypnosis?
1) Absorption > capacity to block peripheral awareness
2) Dissociation > ability to separate aspects of perception
3) Suggestibility > tendency to accept direction
What is a key finding of hypnosis research?
People who are responsive under hypnosis are just as responsive to suggestion without it
> imaginative suggestibility
What are the primary hypnotic phenomena?
- Anaesthesia
- Sensory distortions + hallucinations
- Disinhibition
- Post-hypnotic suggestions + amnesia
What are the theories re hypnosis?
1- Social cognitive theory > role playing
>effects duplicated by non-hyp people
2- Altered State of consciousness > dissociation enables the person to have 2 simultaneous streams of awareness > hidden observer
> brain imaging shows consistent w hallucinations
Has the study of hypnosis produced physiological changes?
No, not on EEG
What is the biggest support for Dissociation?
Divided consciousness is already a common experience
> highway hypnosis
What is the family of practices that train attention to heighten awareness and bring mental processes under voluntary control?
Meditation
> deliberate effort to alter consciousness
What are the two main approaches to meditation?
- focused attention > attention on one thing: breathing
>TM - open monitoring > attention to moment-to-moment in non-judgement > detached observer
> Zen buddhism, mindfulness
How has mindfulness been integrated into common practice?
CBT for psychotherapy to treat anxiety, depression, OCD, others
What happens when meditation occurs?
- alpha & theta waves increases
- heart rate, respiration rate, skin conductance, etc decrease
What characterizes mediation physiologically?
suppression of bodily arousal
What do brain images of meditators show?
- increase activity in prefrontol cortex
- different approaches have different activity
- changes unlikely from simple relaxation
- can change brain structure
What do critics site re meditation as an altered state?
- placebo effect and relaxation
What are chemical substances that modify mental, emotional and behavioural functioning?
Psychoactive drugs
What age category has seen a rise in binge drinking?
Youth 15-24
What are the 6 categories of psychoactive drugs?
- Narcotics
- Sedatives
- Stimulants
- Hallucinogens
- Cannabis
- Alcohol
- MDMA
What are narcotics, what is the most common purpose, and most common forms?
Opiate based drugs - originally to relieve pain > heroin > morphine > oxycodone > time release for less abuse > demerol
What are the main symptoms and side effects of narcotics?
Symptoms> euphoria, well-being, ‘who cares’
Side effect> lethargy, nausea, motor functions, constipation
What are sedatives, what is the most common purpose, and most common forms?
Sleep inducing drugs that decrease CNS activation
> downers
- qualudes
- barbiturates/non-barbiturates
What are the main symptoms and side effects of sedatives?
Symptoms> euphoria, relaxation, anxiety reduction, reduced inhibitions
Side effects> drowsiness, mood swings, impairment of mental functioning, lethargy, motor coordination
What are stimulants, what is the most common purpose, and most common forms?
Drugs that increase the CNS activation
>cocaine
>amphetamines
> caffeine and nicotine
What are the main symptoms and side effects of stimulants?
Symptoms> buoyant euphoria, increased alertness, excitement, reduced fatigue
Side effects> anxiety, blood pressure, talkativeness, sweating, paranoia, aggressiveness, reduced appetite
What is freebasing?
chemical treatment used to extract pure cocaine from street cocaine
> makes crack
What are hallucinogens, what is the most common purpose, and most common forms?
Powerful effect on mental and emotional functioning
> distortions in sensory and perceptual experience
- LSD
- Psylocybin
- Mescaline
What are the main symptoms and side effects of hallucinogens?
Symptoms> euphoria, increased sensory awareness, altered perceptions, hallucinations, sense of time, insightful experiences
Side effects> nausea, dilated pupils, paranoia, mood swings, panic, anxiety, impaired judgement, bad trip
What is cannabis, what is the most common purpose, and most common forms?
Hemp plant > pain relief - marijuana - hashish > hemp resin - THC > active chemical ingredient
What are the main symptoms and side effects of cannabis?
Symptoms> mild euphoria, relaxation, altered perceptions, enhanced awareness
Side effects> bloodshot eyes, increased heart rate, dry mouth, reduced short term memories, sluggish motor and mental, anxiety
What is alcohol, what is the most common purpose, and most common forms?
Variety of beverages containing ethyl alcohol
- beer
- wine
- distilled spirits
What are the main symptoms and side effects of alcohol?
Symptoms> mild euphoria, relaxation, anxiety reduction, reduced inhibitions, increased self-esteem
Side effects> impaired coordination and mental, increased urination, emotional swings, depression, quarrelsomeness, hangover
What is the most widely used drug in society?
Alcohol
What is mdma, what is the most common purpose, and most common forms?
Drug compound related to amphetamines and mescaline
> molly or ecstacy
Symptoms> warm, friendly, euphoric, sensual, insightful, empathetic, short high
Side effects> increased blood pressure, muscle tension, sweating, blurred vision, insomnia, transient anxiety
What is a drug tolerance?
A progressive decrease in a person’s responsiveness to a drug
> leads to larger doses
>alcohol slow tolerance
> heroin fast tolerance
What are the main mechanisms of psychoactive drugs?
Neurotransmitter activity
What neurotransmitters do amphetamines affect?
Monoamines increase the release and interfere with reuptake of
> Norepinephrine
> Dopamine
- causes increased levels of DA and NE at affected synapses
What effect does cocaine have on monoamines?
Similar to amphetamines but it also blocks the reuptake of seratonin as well as DA and NE > can lead to DA and NE defficiency
What is crucial to the pleasureable effects of cocaine and amphetamines?
Elevated activity of dopamine circuits
How do opiates affect neurotransmitters?
They bind to endorphin receptor sites
>indirectly elevate activity in dopamine pathways that modulate reward
How does cannabis affect neurotransmitters?
THC ‘hijacks’ the 2 types of cannabinoid receptors
> increases release of endorphines
> activates dopamine circuits
What are the naturally produced chemicals in the body similar to THC?
Endocanabanoids> anandamide
> influence GABA and glutamate synapses
What is the theory about what specific neural pathway is affected by recreational drugs?
Mesolimbic dopamine pathway
Midbrain > medial forebrain bundle> nucleus accumbens > prefrontal cortex
> dopamine projection/release
How does a physical dependence develop?
When a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal
> common to narcotics, sedatives, alcohol & stimulants
Dependency is also an example of what?
classical conditioning > situational specific tolerance
How is a psychological dependence developed?
when a person must continue to take a drug to satisfy intense mental and emotional cravings
> need is more powerful than physical dependence
> all rec drugs but hallucinogens
What is the chief factor in craving and addition?
Dysregulation in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway
What do both types of dependence demonstrate?
Alterations in synaptic transmissions
What are common health effects of rec drugs?
- Overdose > CNS depressants systems stop
> CNS stimulants cause overload: heart attack, stroke, seizure - Direct effects> physiological damage
- Indirect-effects> health-impairing behaviour: attitude, intention and behaviour
What drug has the most diverse negative effects on physical health?
Alcohol
What is the most controversial drug?
Marijuana
- heavy use increases risk of lung and resp disease
- suppresses aspects of immune system
- link to psychotic disorders> schizophrenia
- temp decrease in testosterone
- heavy chronic use linked to impairment of attention, learning, memory
What are the general findings re MDMA?
Not very addictive by psychological dependence can occur
- stroke, heart attack, seizure, liver damage
- sleep disorders and depression
- subtle long-term memory deficits and decrease in performance learning
What is the main finding re nap effectiveness?
Naps can be refreshing and beneficial if they don’t interfere with night sleep
> esp when rich in slow wave or REM
What is the problem with CNS depressants and sleep?
They can dissrupt the sleep cycle
Is alcoholism a disease?
no conclusive evidence but a disease is an impairments in normal functioning of an organism that alters its vital functions
What is the tendency to use definitions as explanations?
Nominal fallacy
