Chapter 6: Learning Flashcards
What is learning?
Any durable change in behaviour or knowledge
What are superstitions a result of?
Operant conditioning
What are phobias a result of?
Classical conditioning
What is the mechanism of learning connections between events that occur in an organism’s environment?
Conditioning
What is classical conditioning?
type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus
> Pavlovian conditioning > psychic reflex
What did Pavlov do re psychology field?
Shifted the focus from introspection to more objective scientific approach
What was the key to the Pavlovian dog experiment?
That the tone did not originally produce the salivary response
> it was a NEUTRAL STIMULUS
What was theoretical impact of Pavlov’s work?
Helped develop the functional perspective
- conditioning as evolutionary adaptive
What are the elements in classical conditioning?
- UCS: unconditioned stimulus> stimulus that evokes response without previous conditioning
- UCR: unconditioned response> unlearned reaction to a UCS without previous conditioning
- CS: conditioned stimulus> previously neutral stimulus that can elicit a response due to conditioning
- CR: conditioned response> learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus due to conditioning
What is the relationship between the UCR and CR?
They are often the same behaviourwith subtle differences, just evoked by different stimuli
When is a response elicited instead of evoked?
When it is drawn forth through conditioning instead of naturally occurring and automatic
What is a trial?
The presentation of a stimulus> usually to establish conditioned response
What is evaluative conditioning?
Acquisition of likes and dislikes (preferences) via classical conditioning > can shape attitudes
Where is evaluative conditioning most often applied?
Advertising
What kind of physiological effects can classical conditioning have?
- Immunosuppression
- drug tolerance
- sexual arousal
What are the effects of classical conditioning on drug use?
Drug use can elicit a conditioned opponent response that is a Compensatory CR> which compensate for some of the drug effects and maintain homeostasis thereby netutralizing some of the pleasure and drug’s effects, causing people do up their dose
>environmental cues then become CSs that elicit compensatory CRs which do not present when they are not in that environment
> lead to overdoses
> trigger com CRs in sober people, causing use
> environment can trigger withdrawal symptoms
What is the Classical Conditioning Process?
- Acquisition: initial learning > depends on stimulus contiguity meaning they occur together in time and space > novel more likely to stand out
- Extinction: weakening and disappearance of conditioned response > presentation of CS without UCS
- Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of extinguished response > weaker than peak response strength > second can occur
What is the renewal effect?
the reappearance of a response in it’s originally learned environment, that had previously been extinguished in an environment other than where originally learned
Is extinction unlearning?
No, it is suppression
What is stimulus generalization?
Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to specific stimulus responds in the same way to a new stimuli that are similar to the original
> adaptive
>panic disorder
> Little Albert and the fluffy white things w scary noise?
What is a rule for generalization and stimuli?
The more similar new stimuli are to the original CS
What is stimulus discrimination?
When as organism that has learned a response to a specific stimuli does not respond in the same way to other similar stimuli > ability to discern
How are generalizations measured?
With generalization gradients>
What is higher-order conditioning?
When a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus > new conditioned response formed off of a new CS that was paired with a previous CS
What is the form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences?
Operant conditioning
Whats the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning governs voluntary responses
CC regulates reflexive involuntary responses
What is instrumental learning?
By Thorndike, the precurser to operant conditioning that considered response as instrumental in obtaining a desired outcome> law of effect
What is the Law of Effect?
if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects the association bw stimulus and response in strengthened
> cornerstone of Skinner’s OC theory
What was Skinner’s OC theory?
That organisms tend to repeat behaviour that are followed by favourable consequences
What is reinforcement?
when en event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response> reward
What is an operant chamber or Skinner box?
Small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled
Are operant responses elicited?
No, they are emitted (to send forth) because they are voluntary
What is the benefit o a skinner box?
Enables the researcher to control reinforcement contingencies
What are reinforcement contingencies?
circumstances /rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers
What is the key dependent variable in OC/skinner box?
The key DV is response rate over time
What is used with a skinner box to graphically record response and reinforcement?
A cumulative recorder
> slash marks indicate reward given
> line always goes up or is flat, slope of line is key
How are operant responses established?
Through shaping
What is shaping?
The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response
> key to training animals
When does extinction begin in operant conditioning?
When the reinforcement stops
How does resistance to extinguish manifest in OC?
the organism continues to make the response after delivery of reward is terminated
> greater resistance = longer response after termination of reward
> depends on reinforcement schedule
Does operant conditioning have a renewal effect?
Yes
> can impact recovery
What are discriminative stimuli?
Cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating probable consequences of a response
What are reactions to a discriminative stimulus governed by?
Stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination
How is reinforcement that strengthens a response measured?
In rate of response
What is the central process in reinforcement?
The strengthening of a response tendency
How is reinforcement defined?
After the fact via its effect on behaviour
What is a primary reinforcer?
Events/things that satisfy biological needs
> food, water, sex, affection
> limited # in species
What is a secondary reinforcer?
Events/things that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers
> depend on learning
> money, attention, flattery, good grades, applause
What do superstitions depend on and what can they do?
- depend on Reinforcement
- can enhance performance, influence outcomes
What is the schedule of reinforcement?
determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer
What is continuous reinforcement?
Reinforcement given at every instance of a designated response
> simplest pattern
> often used in shaping
What is intermittent reinforcement?
When reinforcement is given only some of the time
> more realistic
> sporadic delivery creates great resistance
What are the 4 types of reinforcement schedules?
1- Fixed-ratio (FR): reinforcement after given # responses
2- Variable ratio (VR): reinforcement after variable # > predetermined average
3- Fixed-interval (FI): reinforcement after fixed elapsed time
4- Variable interval (VI): reinforcement after variable elapsed time > predetermined average
What is the difference between ratio and interval schedules?
-ratio: based on # of responses
> produce more rapid responding
-interval: based on time period
Which schedules generate the most steady response rates and greatest resistance to extinction?
Variable schedules
What is the typical shape of fixed-interval reinforcement?
scallops- pause after reinforcement
What are the two types of reinforcement?
+ Positive
- negative
What is positive and negative reinforcement?
-positive: response is strengthened via presentation of reward
-negative: response is strengthened via removal of aversive stimulus
> BOTH NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT STRENGTHEN BEHAVIOUR
How is avoidance learned and in what is it rooted?
Avoidance is learned through negative reinforcement
> rooted in escape learning
What is escape learning?
a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation
> shuttle box
What is avoidance learning?
when an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring
> combines CC + OC > Mowrer’s two-process theory
Why is hard to get rid of phobias?
1- responses that allow avoidance earn negative reinforcement each instance
2- avoidance prevents opportunities for extinguishing the phobia > never exposed to CS
What is punishment?
When an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response
> can be the presentation of an aversive stimulus OR
> can be the removal of a rewarding stimulus
What is the relationship bw negative reinforcement and punishment?
They are opposites
What are the biological constraints to conditioning?
- Instinctive drive: interference from animal’s innate response tendencies
- Conditioned taste-aversion: impossible to create certain associations while impossible to prevent some taste-nausea associations > adaptive re toxicity
- Preparedness: species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in particular ways > phobias to particular insects or objects> adaptive
What is the evolutionary view of learning?
That basic mechanisms for learning are similar across species but modified via evolution
What is latent learning?
(Tolman), when learning occurs without reinforcement
> not apparent from behaviour when it first occurs
What was the significance of latent learning?
- learning can happen w/o reinforcement
- cognitive processes are relevant to understanding conditioning (mental map)
What are signal relations?
(Rescorla) WHen environmental stimuli serve as signals and some are better than others at predicting
In signal relations when is a response likely to be strengthened?
When a person thinks that the response caused the desirable outcome, not just when a desirable event is concurrent
> detecting contingencies among environmental events
What is observational learning?
When an organisms responding is influenced by the observation of others/models
Who was the main proponent of observational learning?
Bandura
Does observational learning cancel conditioned learning?
No, it extends the reach of conditioning
> conditioning of one subject is taken up by observation by another
> indirect conditioning
What are the 4 key processes to observational learning?
1- Attention: focus on behaviour and consequences
2- Retention:
3- Reproduction: enacting modelled response > convert memory into overt behaviour
4- Motivation: unlikely to reproduce unless motivated to do so> will it pay off
What affects which responses are acquired vs performed?
Reinforcement
What are mirror neurons?
Neurons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another preform same action
> frontal and perietal lobes
> may underlie ability to understand others
> empathize
What is the systemic approach to changing behaviour through the application of the principles of conditioning?
Behaviour modification
What are the 5 steps of behaviour modification?
Step 1: Specify target behaviour Step 2: Gather baseline data Step 3: Design program Step 4: Execute and evaluate Step 5: End program
What are antecedents?
Events that precede the target response
What is a token economy?
A system for doling out symbolic reinforcers that are exchanged for a variety of genuine reinforcers
What are two things that can increase the likelihood of compliance with a behaviour modification program?
- behavioural contract
- have someone else dole out reinforcement or punishment
