Chapter 7: Human Memory Flashcards
What the 3 types memory systems?
- encoding 2. storage 3. retrieval
What is the system of getting information into the memory?
Encoding - forming a memory code.
How does attention in memory work?
involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events
What is the models of selective attention?
stimulus—·> sensory detection—>recognition of meaning—>response selection—>response
What is the levels-of-processing theory?
proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer lasting memory codes.
What are three deeper levels of processing encoding?
- structural
- phonemic
- samantic
What is structural encoding?
shallow processing that relates to physical structure of stimulus.
example is the word written in Capital letters?
What is phonemic encoding?
intermittent - relates to what words sound like, involves naming or saying of words.
Example does the word rhyme with weight?
What is semantic encoding?
meaning to it - relates the meaning of verbal input; it involves thinking bout the objects and actions.
Example is would the word fit in the sentence ‘he met a ____ on the street’?
What is elaboration in encoding mean?
a linking in stimulus to other information at the time of encoding.
Example is phobias are often caused by classical conditioning, and you apply that idea to your own fear by doing that you are engaging in elaboration.
What is visual imagery?
the creation of visual images to represent the words to be remembered.
What is dual-coding theory?
holds that memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall.
What did Allan Paivio (1969-2007) point out in visual imagery?
that it is easier to form images of concrete objects than of abstract concepts.
What is self-referent encoding?
It involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant. (to the person taking in the information)
What is the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory storage?
Sensory input—>Sensory memory—>Attention—>Short-term memory—>Storage—>Long-term memory
What is the sensory memory?
preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second.
in the case of vision people really perceive an afterimage rather than the actual stimulus.
What is short-term memory (STM)?
a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds.
What does rehearsal mean?
the process of repetitively verbalizing or think about the information.
What did theorists originally believe about STM?
that the loss of info from STM was due purely to time-related decay of memory traces, but follow up research showed that interference from competing material also contributes to it.
What is a chunk?
is a group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit.
What is working memory?
a limited capacity storage system that temporarily maintains and stores info by providing an interface between perception, memory and action.(Alan Baddeley 1986-2003)
What is the first component in working memory?
the phonological loop that represented all of STM in earlier models.
What is the second component in working memory?
is a visuospatial sketchpad that permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images.
What is the third component in working memory?
A central executive system that controls the deployment of attention, switching the focus of attention and dividing attention as needed.
also coordinates the actions of the other modules.
What is the fourth component in working memory?
is the episodic buffer, a temporary limited capacity store that allows the various components of working memory to integrate between information and that serves as an interfere between working memory and long-term memory.
What is working memory capacity?
refers to ones ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention.
What is long term memory?
is an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time.
one P.O.V is that all info stored in LTM is stored there permanently
What is flashbulb memory?
thought to be unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events, provide striking examples of seemingly permanent storage.
What did Penfield’s research show about flashbulb memory?
are not as durable or accurate as we once thought.
How many categories are their in the knowledge represented and organized in memory?
- clustering and conceptual hierarchies
- schemes
- semantic networks
- connections networks and parallel distributed processing (PDP) models
What is clustering?
the tendency to remember similar or related items in groups.
remembered in bunches that belonged in the same category
What is conceptual hierarchies?
a multilevel classification system based on common properties among items.
such as minerals then metals/stones and remembering them based on those two categories.
What is schemas?
an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event.
What is a semantic network?
consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts.
What is spreading activation?
theorists called remembering like words like butter for the word bread makes bread easier to remember.
What is connectionist models of memory?
instead of how computers process memory connectionist models of memory take their inspiration from how neural networks appear to handle information.
What is parallel distributed processing?
that is simultaneous processing of the same information that is spread across networks of neurons.
What does connectionist or parallel distributed processing models assume?
that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational (relating to) networks that resemble neural networks.
What are the four ways to retrieval?
- using cues
- reinstating the context of an event
- reconstructing memories
- source monitoring
What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?
the temporary, inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that its just out of reach is a common experience that is typically triggered by a name that one can’t quite recall.
memories can often be jogged with retrieval cues - stimuli that help gain access to memories
What is the misinformation effect researched by Elizabeth Loftus (1979,1992,2005)?
occurs when people in the research recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event information.
What is source monitoring?
the process of making inference about the origins of memories.
What is source monitoring error?
occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source
Who was the first person to conduct scientific studies on forgetting?
Herman Ebbinghaus
What is nonsense syllables?
consonant-vowel-consonant arrangements that do not correspond to words.
What is a forgetting curve?
graphs retention and forgetting over time.
What does retention refer to?
the proportion of material retained(remembered)
What is a retention interval?
the length of time between the presentation of materials to be remembered and the measurement of forgetting
What is a recall measure of retention?
requires subjects to reproduce information on their own without any cues.
What is a recognition measure of retention?
requires subjects to select previously learned information form an array of options.
What is a relearning?
a measure of retention requires a subject to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before.
What are the reasons why we forget?
- ineffective encoding
- decay
- interference
- retrieval failure
- motivated forgetting
What is a type of ineffective encoding?
you can’t really forget something you never learned, this is called pseudo forgetting, usually due to lack of attention.
What is decay theory?
proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time.
What is interference theory?
proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material.
What are the two different kinds of interference?
- retroactive
2. proactive
What is retroactive interference?
occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information
What is proactive interference?
occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information.
What is encoding specificity principle?
states that the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code.
What is motivated forgetting?
It is when someone doesn’t want to remember
Freud’s term was repression
What does repression mean?
to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious
What is retrograde amnesia?
a person loses memory for events prior to the amnesia
What is anterograde amnesia?
a person shows memory deficits for events subsequent to the onset of the amnesia
What has studies of amnesia and other research suggest play a major role in memory?
the hippocampus and broader medical temporal lobe system
These areas may play a crucial role in?
consolidation of memories
What are the 2 proposed memory systems?
- declarative memory
2. nondeclarative memory
What does declarative memory handle?
recall of factual information such as names, dates and events.
What does nondeclarative memory handle?
recall of actions, skills, and operations. such as riding a bike or typing.
What is semantic versus episodic memory?
semantic memory system contains general knowledge that is not temporally dated. and episodic memory system handles temporally dated recollections of personal experiences
What is prospective versus retrospective memory ?
Prospective memory involves remembering to perform actions in the future and retrospective memory involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information.
What is hindsight bias?
the tendency to reshape one’s interpretation of the past to fit with known outcomes.
