Chapter 7

Question 1

Behavioural Ecology

Answer 1

Relationship between behaviours, natural environment, + biological traits of species.

• Based on assumption: animals, plants, + microorganisms evolved together.
• Behaviours evolved through natural selection, or some behaviours influenced by genes, are subject to natural selection the same way physical characteristics

Question 2

Describe primate societies

Answer 2

Diverse set of social signals. Societies are highly complex. Form long-term relationships

Question 3

Describe the work of Jane Goodall

Answer 3

1st to study primates in the wild, (later Birute Galdikas and Diane Fossey, Lewis Leaky financed).
Worked at Gombe Stream Reserve in Tanzania
Chimps make tools, hunt, kill, + eat small mammals-(antelope, warthogs, monkeys)
Sophisticated long-term relationships and social structure

Question 4

Describe social structures

Answer 4

Composition, size, and sex ratio of a group of animals.

Result of natural selection in a specific habitat, guides individual interactions and social relationships.

Question 5

What activity patterns factors influence social structures?

Answer 5

Most primates are diurnal, but several small-bodied prosimians + owl monkey = nocturnal
Nocturnal = forage for food alone or groups of 2 or 3, use concealment to avoid predators

Question 6

What are the benefits of living in a group?

Answer 6

Group living exposes animals to competition.
BUT Costs of competition are offset by the benefits of predator defense w/ group.
Group living evolved as an adaptive response to a number of ecological variables. (raising young, reproduction)

Question 7

How does Body Size influence social struc?

Answer 7

Larger animals = fewer calories per unit of weight than smaller animals.
Larger animals = retain heat better, energy requirements are less than smaller animals.
= affects feeding and infant rearing behaviours = affects social structure and organization

Question 8

How does Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) influence social struc.?

Answer 8

Smaller animals higher BMR than large animals.

Smaller primates need energy-rich diet high-protein, fats, + carbohydrates.

Question 9

Describe food foraging in primates

Answer 9

Up to 50% of waking time
Female burden.
Good nutrition = Earlier 1st birth, healthier infants, short interbirth interval, longer lifespan
Food factors: Quality, distribution, availability

Question 10

How does the distribution or resources influence social struc?

Answer 10

Leaves = abundant, dense, + support large groups.
Insects = widely scattered, causing animals to feed alone or in small groups of 2-3
Fruits + nuts = in clumps, most efficiently exploited by smaller groups; large groups break up into smaller subunits to feed.

Question 11

How does predation influence social struc?

Answer 11

Primates predators = snakes, birds of prey, leopards, wild dogs, lions, + other primates.
Predation pressure is high = advantageous large communities
Multi-male, multi-female groups or congregations of one-male groups.

Question 12

How does dispersal influence social struc?

Answer 12

Members of one sex leave the group in which born when they become sexually mature.
Individuals who leave find mates outside their natal group, so dispersal = decrease close inbreeding.

Question 13

Describe reproductive behaviours

Answer 13

sexual behaviour is tied to the female’s reproductive cycle–estrus.
Permanent bonding (females + males) = not common nonhuman primates.
Bonobos mate all the time, but not chimps.

Question 14

Describe reproductive strategies

Answer 14

Primates = few young in whom they invest a tremendous amount of parental care (K–selected) (contrast r-selected)
Male competition for mates + mate choice in females = sexual selection.

Question 15

Describe sexual selection

Answer 15

A type of natural selection that operates on one sex, usually males.
Long-term increases frequency of traits = greater success in acquiring mates
Sexual selection = common in species where mating is polygynous, strong male competition for females.
Sexual selection produces dimorphism, most noticeably body size (but others too)

Question 16

What is the basic social unit?

Answer 16

usually mother and infant. Relationship is lifelong.

Except for societies where polyandry or monogamy is common, males do not help rear young.

Question 17

Describe life histories

Answer 17

Characteristics or developmental stages that typify members of a species and influence reproductive rates.
Ie. length of gestation, interbirth time, period of infant dependency + age at weaning, age of sexual maturity, life expectancy.
Unpredictable environments = shorter life histories
stable ones = longer lives
Today; slow rate of reproduction increases threat of extinction for all great apes

Question 18

Describe primate dominance

Answer 18

Dominance hierarchies = impose order + establish parameters individual behavior.
Higher-ranking animals + access to preferred food + mating partners than lower ranking
Sometimes called “pecking orders”, can change throughout life, are learned

Question 19

What are factors that Influence Dominance Status

Answer 19

•Sex •Age •Aggression •Time in the group •Intelligence •Motivation •Mother’s social position

Question 20

Describe Affiliation and Altruism in Primates

Answer 20

Affiliation: Reconciliation(hugging, kissing, grooming), consolation, + interactions between friends and relatives.
Relationships are crucial to nonhuman primates, bonds can last a lifetime.
Altruism, behaviours that benefit another while posing risk to oneself, are common in primate species.

Question 21

Describe Grooming

Answer 21

Picking through fur to remove dirt, parasites, + other materials.
Social grooming = common, reinforces social relationships (critical to adult function and survival)

Question 22

Describe Communication

Answer 22

Any act that conveys information to another individual. Result of involuntary processes or a secondary consequence of an intentional action.
Autonomic/unintentional: raising hair
Deliberate: Gestures, facial expressions, + vocalizations
Fear grin (all primates) = indicates fear and submission. Also "the yawn" 
Grooming = submission or reassurance
Displays = emotional states.

Question 23

What the recording experiment with Dawn Kitchen demonstrate?

Answer 23

Primates know each other and their distinct vocalizations, and also know who is related to whom in a group.

Question 24

Describe language

Answer 24

Vervet monkeys = specific vocalizations fir particular categories of predators, snakes, birds of prey, + leopards.
Baby vervets will use the “aerial” predator cry when anything comes from above—a leaf, a bird, etc. As they mature they get better at understanding which cry to use and when, and adults begin to pay more attention to them
Learned behaviour.

Question 25

Communication

Answer 25

Gestural = Hand clasp, Cultural variants
Vocal dialects—diff groups of same species use sounds differently
Ape language studies - Kanzi ASL. Kanzi’s kids weren’t taught but they learnt from their mother.

Question 26

Describe Aggressive Interactions

Answer 26

Group disruption, instead of affiliative behaviour - group cohesion.
Conflict = competition for resources: mating partners and food items.
Intragroup aggression = various signals + displays within dominance hierarchy.
Tense situations = submissive and appeasement behaviours.

Question 27

Describe intergroup aggression

Answer 27

Primate groups = a home range where they remain permanently.
Home range has core area = highest concentration of predictable resources, group is most frequently found. Also group’s territory, and it’s the portion of the home range defended against intrusion

Question 28

Describe primate cultural behaviour

Answer 28

Learned; passed from gen to gen through observation + instruction.
Nonhuman primate infants = observe mothers + others, learn about food items, appropriate behaviours, and how to use and modify objects to achieve certain ends.

Question 29

What are some examples of primate cultural behaviour?

Answer 29

Japanese macaques and sweet potato washing
Orangutan nest building
Gorilla depth testing
Chimpanzee termite fishing, leaf sponges, hunting “spears,” nut cracking
Kanzi’s stone tool making