Chapter 7 Flashcards
1
Q
What is memory
A
Any system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information
2
Q
What are memory’s 3 basic tasks
A
encoding, storage, and retrieval
3
Q
What is encoding
A
modifying information to fit the memory system
4
Q
Encoding Example
A
catchy lyrics and tune to a song to get stuck in your head
5
Q
What is elaborative rehearsal
A
Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM. (putting stuff in your house, latin roots)
6
Q
What is acoustic encoding
A
Conversion of information to sound patterns in working memory – not long-term memory, hard to remember
7
Q
What is storage
A
Retaining encoded material over time
8
Q
What is retrieval
A
Locating and recovering information from memory
9
Q
Parallel Processing
A
Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously (as opposed to step by step)
10
Q
How do we form memories
A
Each of the three memory stages encodes and stores memories in a different way but they work together to transform sensory experience into a lasting record that has a pattern of meaning
11
Q
What are the three stages of memory
A
sensory, working, and long term
12
Q
What is sensory memory
A
Preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli. About 12 items capacity which only lasts a few seconds.
13
Q
What is a sensory register
A
Each sense has a separate storage area. Preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli.
14
Q
Working memory
A
Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal. Also called short term memory or STM. 7 Things plus or minus 2.
15
Q
What does working memory consist of?
A
A central executive, a phonological loop, and the sketchpad
16
Q
What is a central executive
A
Directs attention to material retrieval from LTM or to input from sensory memory.
17
Q
What is a phonological loop
A
temporarily stores sound
18
Q
What is a sketchpad
A
Stores and manipulates visual images
19
Q
What is chunking
A
Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units
20
Q
Maintenance rehearsal
A
Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory
21
Q
Levels of processing theory
A
Information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful terms in LTM will be better remembered
22
Q
Long term memory
A
Stores material organized according to meaning
23
Q
Procedural memory
A
Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done – cerebellum (Riding a bike)
24
Q
Declarative memory
A
Division of LTM that stores explicit information (AKA fact memory)
25
Where is declarative memory stored
Temporal lobe within the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex
26
Types of declarative memory
episodic and semantic
27
What is episodic memory
Subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories for personal events or episodes
28
What is semantic memory
Subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge including meanings of words and concepts
29
LTM divided by
Subdivisions are declarative and procedural and declarative consists of semantic (general knowledge) and episodic (personal events and experiences)
30
Long-term potentiation
The process by which short term memories are changed to long term memories -- consolidation
31
What is hebbs rule
Neurons that fire together wire together
32
Human memory is good at
information on which attention is focused, information in which we are interested, information that arouses us emotionally, information that fits with our previous experiences, information that we rehearse
33
How do cognitive psychologists see human memory
interpretive systems, such as an artist rather than a system that takes an accurate recording such as a video recorder.
34
How do we retrieve memories
Whether memories are implicit or explicit successful retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how they are cued
35
implicit memory
memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness (priming, mere exposure effect, procedural memory)
36
explicit memory
memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled
37
Iconic memory
visual memory lasts less than 1 second
38
echoic memory
auditory memory lasts less than 4 seconds
39
Mnemonics
Consciously making connections between new material and information already in LTM in order to aid in recall (method of loci)
40
Natural language mediators
stories and acronyms
41
Concepts
mental categories of items or ideas.
42
what are natural concepts
represent objects and events
43
artificial concepts
defined by rules (geometry)
44
prototypes
a best example of a category -- matching new items to a prototype makes sorting easy
45
How do we organize semantic memories
concept hierarchies -- human body, digestive and nervous system, stomach and liver, brain and spinal cord
46
Shallow processing
simple encoding based on structure or appearance of words
47
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on meaning; much more effective
48
spacing effect
distributed study is better than massed study (cramming) because
49
testing effect
we learn better retrieving information thatn we do rereading it
50
Flashbulb memories
a clear memory of an emotionally significant event
51
Recognition
identifying presented stimuli as having been previously presented (pick seven dwarves out of a list)
52
relearning
measure of memory assessing amount of time saved when learning material again
53
retrieval cues
stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness (mnemonic devices)
54
recall
reproducing previously presented information
55
Priming
retrieving implicit memories with cues that stimulate a memory/action without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory/action
56
Tip of the tongue phenomenon
the inability to recall while knowing that it is in memory
57
mood congruent memory
selectively retrieving memories that match ones mood
58
serial position effect
tendency to recall the first (primacy) and last (recency) items in a list
59
Encoding specificity principle
the more closely the retrieval cues match the way the information was encoded the better the information will be remembered (taking vocab quiz underwater) (context dependent memory)
60
Why does memory sometimes fail us
Most of our memory problems arise from memories seven sins which are really products of otherwise adaptive features of human memory
61
Blocking
one item in memory prevents another from being retrieved
62
proactive interference
old blocks new (forgetting a persons married name)
63
Transience
the impermanence of a LTM because LTMs gradually fade over time
64
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve
recall decreases rapidly then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten
65
Absent mindedness
forgetting caused by lapses in attention (where did i put my keys)
66
misattribution
memories are retrieved but they are associated with the wrong time place or person (I read that somewhere) similar to source amnesia
67
Bias
an attitude belief emotion or experience that distorts memories
68
confirmation bias
tendency to search for and remember information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore contradictory evidence
69
self consistency bias
incorrectly remembering ones past attitudes and behavior as resembling present ones
70
persistences
memories cannot be put out of mind (PTSD)
71
suggestibility
memory distortion as a result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion (bugs bunny at Disneyland) aka misinformation effect
72
factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitnesses
recollections are less influenced by leading questions if possibility of memory bias is forewarned.
73
factor #2
passage of times leads to incrase in misremembering information
74
factor #3
confidence is not a sign of accuracy
75
Factor #4
thinking is a cognitive proccess in which the brain uses information from the senses emotions and memory to create and manipulate mental representations such as concepts, images, schemes, and scripts
76
Proactive interference
old blocks new information (primacy effect)
77
retroactive interference
new blocks old information (recency effect)
78
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories (50 first dates)
79
retrograde amnesia
inability to remember information previously stored in memory
80
ribots law
recent memories are more liekly to be lost (newest memories most likely effected by brain damage)
81
Schema
a general framework that provides expectations about things (genres of films, sitcoms, weddings)
82
script
basically a schema thats a checklist in chronological order (meeting people; classroom behavior, table manenrs, dating)
83
what abilities do good thinkers posess
good thinkers not only have many effective algorithms and heuristics they know how to avoid the common obstacles to problem solving and decision making
84
divergent thinking
looking for multiple possible answer
85
convergent thinking
looking for one answer
86
algorithms
problem solivng procedures that guarantee a correct outcome if correctly applied (opening a combo lock)
87
heuristics
cognitive strategies used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks they do not guarantee a correct solution (the early bird gets the worm vs slow and steady wins the race
88
Useful heuristics include
breaking a problem into smaller chunks, working backward, searching for analogies
89
Functional fixedness
inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose
90
anchoring bias
faulty heuristic caused by relying too heavily (anchoring) on one trait or piece of information (often the first piece of information is
91
Mental set
the tendency to approach situations one way because that method worked in the past (a child pushes open a door)
92
representative bias
faulty heuristic strategy based on presumption that once a person or event is categorized it shares all features of other members in that category (leads to stereotype)
93
availability bias
faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based on anecdotes from personal experience (plane crashes)
94
belief perserverance
clinging to your first idea even after the basis for that idea has been discredited (flat earthers)
95
framing
the way an issue is posed can significantly affect decisions (reframing -- thinking in more positive terms)
96
overconfidence bias
tendency to force a person to overestimate their abilities it may lead a person to think they're a better than average driver or an expert invester overconfidence bias may lead clients to make risky inventions
97
How do children aquire language
infants and children especially important developmental task with the acquisition of language
98
phonemes
the smallest unit of sound in a language (40)
99
morphemes
meaningful units of language that make up words (roots and stems)
100
grammar
the rules of language
101
overregularization
applying a grammatical rule too widely and thereby creating incorrect forms (hitted feets)
102
babbling stage
6 months
103
one word stage
1 year
104
two word stage
1.5 years
105
telegraph speech
short simple sentences (doggie bye carrot yucky)
106
naming explosion
nouns 45 words per day
107
chomskys innate theory of language
children learn language by following an inborn program for acquring vocabulary and grammar (not behavioral)
108
Language aquisition device
theorized structure in the brain programmed with rules of language
109
chomskys famous sentence
colorless green ideas sleep furiously. this sentence points out the difference between syntax (order of words) and semantics (meaning of words)
110
whorfs hypothesis
linguistic determinism language determines the way we think
111
what does chomskys famous sentence do
chomsky uses this sentence to theorize that humans are born with a universal grammar and that all languages shape certain properties
