Chapter 7

Question 1

grammaticalization between Ls

Answer 1

very similar paths of semantic change occur between Ls.
for each gram type, there are only few possible lexical sources.

Question 2

what forms future grams are built from? what does it show?

Answer 2

future grams are built from Vs or constraints which convey meanings of volition or obligation, from constructions signalling movements toward a goal. in few cases from Temporal Adveribials.
- it shows that the path of grammaticalization is similar between Ls.

Question 3

how the grammaticalization is different across Ls? Example

Answer 3

Grammaticalization over two centuries of movement futures across French, Porto and Spanish show that the rate of change is different, contextual factors that influence the movement future are different too.
in different Ls, there are specific factors that push the long term development more in some contexts than others.

Question 4

what are the ways in which grammaticalization is Universal?

Answer 4

conceptual sources are similar, mechanisms of change such as bleaching and inference are similar.

Question 5

What is BLEACHING?

Answer 5

Loss of LEXICAL Meaning

Question 6

Examples of L specific factors

Answer 6

1. the existence of other competing forms
2. attachment of social meaning to a variant or another

Question 7

How concept of time is coded into languages

Answer 7

1. Lexical items (Adv, PPs: now, then, on, Wednesday)
   2.Periphrastic constraints (be going to)
2. inflections (past tense -ed)

Question 8

what does deixis mean?

Answer 8

the MEANING of TENS GRAMS are deictic. the actual temporal reference is changing based on the moment of speech. what is simple present today is past tomorrow. Temporal Expressions like NOW, TODAY and Next week are deictic and it means that the time they refer to is dependant to the time that they are being expressed.

Question 9

what does aspect refer to?

Answer 9

Aspect refers to how internal temporal structure of a situation is being viewed. simple past: habitual action. be going to: continuous situation.

Question 10

how aspect is being shown

Answer 10

by aspectual markers. making aspectual markers is a derivational process. derivational affixes grammaticalised from inflectional ones.

Question 11

Temporal Affixes: what they drive from

Answer 11

1. adverbs illustrate locative direction (up-down-over- through)

Question 12

adverb indicating locative directions adding to atelic verbs

Answer 12

indicate completion of an action: eat up, write up, burn up, think over, think through.

Question 13

atelic verb

Answer 13

verbs that do not necessarily needs an acceleration toward goal. completion. they do not necessarily need completion

Question 14

Perfectivising

Answer 14

adding a directional locative adverb to a verb which shows perfect aspect. in some languages this adverbs are grammaticalised in a way that two forms with and without adverbs exist. each adverb go with an specific verb. (we have eat up but we do not have eat down)

Question 15

Derivations of Pronouns

Answer 15

3rd Person: Demonstrative pronouns (spatial location)
Object Pronouns: from ACC case of Demonstrative Pronouns, with more phonological reduction
2nd Person: Deictic Spatial Terms, Plural Pronouns, 3rd Person Forms
First Person: They have been in languages for long time, they are similar (consonants as evidence: m and t) we do not know their sources.

Question 16

Derivation of Articles

Answer 16

Definite Articles:Derived from Demonstratives, mostly distal demonstrative that changed from reference within a space to reference within a discourse

Indefinite articles: Derived From One. singular sense is maintained but changed from ONE AND ONLY ONE to a new ONE that the speaker introduces as a referent

Question 17

what are ADPOSITIONS

Answer 17

ADPOSITIONS are prepositions and postpositions

Question 18

Sources for ADPOSITIONS

Answer 18

adpositions can derive from N constraints or V constraints

Question 19

What Ns become adpositions?

Answer 19

-start with the meaning of spatial positioning
-they start from constraints that already have an established adposition with a N in genitive case
-most frequently Ns from human body parts and environmental landmarks
-they refer to the position of N in human body, or four legged animal body
-

Question 20

stages of semantic changes that body parts go through

Answer 20

body part-relational part of object- location near object - location in region of object part

Question 21

stages of semantic change in IN FRONT OF

Answer 21

1. FRONT borrowed from the latin frontis FOREHEAD in 13th centr
   2-THE FRONT OF: foremost part of an object, like houses, when the side with the door was considered front (metaphorical semantic extension, from domain of body part to domain of objects)
   3- started to show any side depending on the speakers perspective
   4- 17th century: location in contact with the front part of an object
   5-18th century: in front of : show a place near front of an object

Question 22

appositions from the Vs examples

Answer 22

during : from V duren, meaning last and endure
considering: for example considering the cost

Question 23

what happens to the grams at the end of the grammaticalization?

Answer 23

as grams become more and more bleached, the tendency is to replace them with newer grams that have fuller meanings. it happens slowly and older and newer gramms coexist.

Question 24

example of coexistence of newer and older gramms

Answer 24

OE has suffixes for different cases, but it also developed prepositions to show locative relations with in conjunction with case suffixes. P to used with Dative NPs that where indicating goal.

Question 25

Mariginalization of Old Gramms

Answer 25

sometimes when a newer Gramm is developed, the older ones stay in more marginalised cases. shall stayed in formal uses.

Question 26

What makes grammaticalization possible in different Ls

Answer 26

similar social and cognitive contexts existing in different culture (this is why the path of grammaticalization is similar across cultures. )