Chapter 7 Flashcards
What is the process of learning?
the process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s behavior or capabilities
“knowing how”
research in learning began through a behaviorist lens
expanded to include cognitive, biological, and cultural perspectives
What is Habituation?
the process of responding less strongly over time to repeated stimuli
learning to ignore irrelevant, non-harmful stimuli
adaptive: conserve energy and additional resources
simplest and earliest form of learning
What is sensitization?
responding more strongly to a stimulus after repeated exposure
most likely to occur for strong or noxious stimuli
What is classical conditioning?
creating and association between two stimuli
associative learning (basic form of learning)
found by happenstance (Pavlov’s Dog)
What are the three phases of classical conditioning?
- Acquisition (gradual learning)
- Extinction (loss of CR to CS)
- Spontaneous recovery
What is the acquisition phase of classical conditioning?
learning the association (CR)
start with the stimulus (food, UCS) and a natural response to it (salivating, UCR)
no learning required
pair this response with another stimulus (bell)
if UCS is intense or aversive, 1 pairing could lead to a CR
a CR depends on the timing between the CS and UCS (also affects strength)
What are the effects of different timing between CS and UCS?
forward start delay: CS is still present when UCS present, optimal learning
forward trace: CS appears then goes off, the UCS, best if delay is 2-3 seconds
simultaneous: not as good as forward
backwards pairing: UCS presented, then CS, little to no learning
What is the extinction phase of classical conditioning?
CR decreases in magnitude and disappears when CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS
can maintain association with occasional re-pairings
not forgetting, learning to inhibit CR (new behavior)
What is the spontaneous recovery phase of classical conditioning?
after a period of rest without learning trials, an encounter with the CS results leads to spontaneous recovery
reappearance of previously-extinguished CR, evidence that CR was not forgotten but suppressed
weaker than original pairing
with enough “extinction trials”, spontaneous recovery is weak enough that it is not a problem
What is spontaneous generalization?
stimuli similar to original CS also elicit a CR
adaptive, can transfer learning to similar stimuli, bad for phobias
What is spontaneous discrimination?
less CR and CSs that are similar
adaptive, discriminate stimuli that share features but differ in important ways
What is higher-order conditioning?
pairing a neutral item with an established CS, until it too becomes a CS
weaker CR and quicker extinction
role in drug association: context is higher-order CS
What is fear acquisition?
can humans associate fear via classical conditioning?
tested with Little Albert and other babies
How do humans overcome fear?
VR: effective for spider phobia, fear of flying, claustrophobia, fear of driving, and fear of heights
Aversion Therapy: dissociate attractive stimuli from good feelings, alcohol + drug that causes nausea
What is operant conditioning?
learning controlled by consequences of voluntary behavior
classical conditioning behaviors are elicited (reflexive)
behavior shaped by reward or punishment (operants)
operating on environment to get what you want
instrumental conditioning
response serves fundamental function
What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
response followed by a “satisfying” consequence more likely to occur
response followed by “unsatisfying” consequence less likely to occur
instrumental learning: behavior is instrumental in bringing about certain outcomes
What is reinforcement?
any outcome that increases the probability of response
What is positive reinforcement?
present something attractive
useful for reinforcing desirable responses
What is negative reinforcement?
remove something unpleasant
aversive conditioning and escape conditioning
What is punishment?
any outcome that weakens the likelihood of response
What is positive punishment?
administer noxious stimulus
pain or shock, yelling
What is negative punishment?
removal of pleasant stimulus
favored over positive punishment (no aggression)
What are primary reinforcers?
naturally occurring stimuli (food, water, sex)
What are secondary reinforcers?
neutral object associated with primary reinforcer (money)
shows how both classical and operant conditioning affect behavior
What are primary punishments?
spray water on cat when it eats flowers
What are secondary punishments?
saying “no” to cat while spraying it
How does timing affect rewards or punishments?
immediate: typically stronger effect then if there’s a delay
delay of gratification: forego immediate small reward for delayed, more satisfying outcome
What is the process of shaping via successive approximations?
can’t reinforce a behavior that is outside one’s repertoire
reinforce approximate behaviors
gradually fade reinforcement for incorrect approximate behaviors
chaining: linking interrelated behaviors to form longer series
What are two types of reinforcement schedules?
continuous
partial or intermittent
What is the continuous reinforcement style?
reinforce every time a behavior occurs
acquire new behavior faster (better if used at start of training)
What is a partial or intermittent reinforcement schedule?
reinforce behavior only sometimes
greater resistance to extinction
best to gradually shift from continuous once behavior is learned
learn occasional reward but behave every time in hopes of receiving reward
may explain why people stay in abusive relationships
What is consistency and basis of reinforcement?
fixed: at a fixed unit/number of times you get a reward
variable: more consistent response rates than fixed
ratio: yield higher response rates than interval, based on number of responses
interval: based on times between reinforcement delivery
What is extinction?
stop delivering reinforcement to previously-reinforced behavior
likely with continuous, more difficult with partial reinforcement
extinction burst
What is the two factor theory of avoidance learning?
learning responses to avoid aversive stimuli
CC and OC use different brain regions
fear conditioning: amygdala
operant: D-A rich reward areas
Why do you need both operant and classical conditioning to explain anxiety disorders and phobias?
acquire phobias with CC
maintained with negative reinforcement (avoidance of CS removes anxiety)
if you avoid phobia, you never extinguish association of CS (phobia) with UCS (fear)
What is preparedness?
evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairings of fearful stimuli over others owing to their survival value
What are the constraints on classical conditioning?
CC leads to avoidance of tastes associated with nausea
defies aspects of CC: occurs with single pairing, long delay between CS (taste) and UCS (nausea), specific and little stimulus generalization, more readily associate nausea with taste rather than other sensations
adaptive: avoid dangerous foods
instinctive drift: tendency to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement
What is insight learning?
Kohler posed problems to chimps
“aha” reactions
didn’t appear to use trial and error
What is a cognitive map?
mental representations of spatial layouts
suggests that learning provides knowledge and expectation of “what leads to what”
What is observational learning?
learning by watching others (models)
form of latent learning: learn with reinforcement, watch others get reinforcement
adaptive: help us not make mistakes, can be faster, problem is they teach habits
What is Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory?
children act aggressively if they watch aggressive models
watch adult or video of adult interact with a Bobo doll
children act like the adults in the video
How does violence in movies and TV shape behvaior?
correlation between violent media and violent behavior
decrease viewer concerns about suffering of victims
habituates us to the sight of violence
