Chapter 4

Question 1

What is genotype?

Answer 1

genetic makeup transmitted from parents to offspring

cannot change

Question 2

What is phenotype?

Answer 2

observable characteristics

can be altered by environment

can be altered by expression/inexpression of multiple genes

Question 3

What are chromosomes?

Answer 3

tightly coiled molecule of DNA partly covered by a protein

Question 4

What is a gene?

Answer 4

hereditary traits

relative expression alters the function of cells

roughly half target brain structure/function

Question 5

What is allele?

Answer 5

alternative forms of a gene (recessive/dominant)

Question 6

What are dominant traits?

Answer 6

mask effects of other genes

Question 7

What are recessive traits?

Answer 7

expressed only in the absence of dominant counterpart

Question 8

What are polygenic effects?

Answer 8

multiple genes interact to produce a single phenotype

Question 9

What are epigenetics?

Answer 9

lasting changes in gene function caused by external/environmental factors

maternal behavior, drug use, nutritional intake, and physical exercise

2 of the ways gene expression can be modified: histone modification, DNA methylation

Question 10

What is histone modification?

Answer 10

modifying histone unit will change how easy it is to express the gene

Question 11

What is DNA methylation?

Answer 11

creates a methyl group on a gene, can over or under express the amount of protein it’s trying to create

Question 12

What is genetic engineering?

Answer 12

a number of ethical issues

recombinant DNA procedures produce materials that are rare by inserting foreign DNA into bacteria, which clones itself along with the bacteria

gene knockout techniques alter gene expression and makes a gene nonfunctional

gives control over heredity and evolution

Question 13

What is behavioral genetics?

Answer 13

study how hereditary and environmental factors combine to influence psychological characteristics

account for variation between people

Question 14

What is a heritability coefficient?

Answer 14

extent to which variation of a particular characteristic in a group can be attributed to genetic factors

Question 15

What are adoption studies?

Answer 15

compare individual to biological parents and adoptive parents

if closer to biological parents, shared genes have influence

if closer to adoptive parents, shared environments have influence

Question 16

What are twin studies?

Answer 16

difference in concordance between identical (monozygotic) twins and fraternal twins (dizygotic)

Question 17

What is reaction range?

Answer 17

range of possibilities that the genetic code allows

for certain traits (IQ) an individual inherits a range with which it will fall

upper and lower bounds

environment determines where within the range one falls

Question 18

What are evolutionary psychologists?

Answer 18

study how behavioral abilities have evolved in response to environmental demands

important aspects of social behavior (aggression, altruism, sex roles, mate selection, protecting kin, are due to evolution)

behavior does not evolve, genes interacting with environment do

Question 19

What is evolution?

Answer 19

change over time in frequency with which certain genes occur within a population

can occur through mutation

Darwin: contribution was specifying process by which species change over time

Question 20

What is natural selection?

Answer 20

characteristics that increase likelihood of survival and reproduction are more likely to be preserved

Question 21

What is evolutionary noise?

Answer 21

neutral variations

Question 22

What is the theory behind the evolution of adaptive mechanisms?

Answer 22

dwindling food, forced to hunt on the plains

bipedal locomotion became an advantage

changes in body (teeth, hands, pelvis) and mind (quick learning, problem solving)

Question 23

How do evolution and human nature interact?

Answer 23

infants are born with innate ability to acquire language

newborns are prewired to perceive specific stimuli

infants show primitive mathematical skills

humans have an innate need to belong, altruism, universal emotions

Question 24

What is personality?

Answer 24

similar across culture

achieve two goals: physical survival and reproduction

mate selection: extraversion, emotional stability

group survival, reproduction: conscientiousness, agreeableness

problem solving, creativity, intelligence: openness to experience

Question 25

What is parental investment?

Answer 25

time, effort, energy and risk associated with caring successfully for each offspring

Trivers (1972): if one parents invest more time in offspring, they will be more discriminating in choosing a mate

in many species, females make fewer reproductive cells, and gestate/breastfeed offspring, suggesting they provide more investment

Question 26

What is cooperation?

Answer 26

one individual helps another, and by doing so gains an advantage

adaptive value is clear

Question 27

What is altruism?

Answer 27

one individual helps another, in doing so, accrues a cost

Question 28

What are the two theories of altruism?

Answer 28

kin selection theory

theory of reciprocal altruism

Question 29

What is kin selection theory?

Answer 29

developed to increase survival of relatives

how to support this hypothesis: compare instances of helping with genetic relatedness

Question 30

What is the theory of reciprocal altruism?

Answer 30

is long term cooperation

how to support this hypothesis: look at whether individuals remember who helped them in the past, and see whether they are more likely to help them

Question 31

What is aggression?

Answer 31

most valued resources are in limited supply, leads to competition

aggression as a means to: protect mate, protect young, protect territory, protect food, take other’s resources

Question 32

What is the evolved ability to recognize others?

Answer 32

helps to remember past encounters

creates dominance hierarchy

Question 33

What is a dominance heirarchy?

Answer 33

allows for determination of who has access to which resources without aggressive encounters

established in first contact with a new group

most dominant can use rank to stop aggressive acts in lesser-ranked individuals

Question 34

What are the fallacies of evolutionary psychology?

Answer 34

1. Standards of evidence for or against evolutionary psychology, adaptions occur over thousands of years thus EP must infer forces that led to adaptations, no direct observation
2. Fallacy to attribute all human characteristics to natural selection
3. Must avoid genetic determinism, idea that genes have effect that cannot be altered
4. Avoid Social Darwinism, notion that those at the top of the social ladder are the “best”
5. Evolution is not purposeful, this idea has been wrongly used to try and define what is morally or ethically wrong