Chapter 6: Learning, Memory and Cognition

Question 1

learning

Answer 1

Long-term change in mental representations or associations as a result of experience

Question 2

information processing theory

Answer 2

Theoretical perspective that focuses on the specific ways in which learners mentally think about or process new information and events

Question 3

individual contructivism

Answer 3

Theoretical perspective that focuses on how learners each construct their own idiosyncratic meanings from their experiences

Question 4

sociocultural theory

Answer 4

Theoretical perspective emphasizing the importance of society and culture in promoting learning and development

Question 5

social constructivism

Answer 5

Theoretical perspective that focuses on people’s collective efforts to impose meaning on the world

Question 6

situated learning

Answer 6

Phenomenon in which aspects of the immediate environment enhance motivation to learn particular things or behave in particular ways

Question 7

distributed cognition and intelligence

Answer 7

Enhancement of thinking through the use of physical objects and technology, concepts and symbols of one’s culture, and/or social collaboration and support.

Question 8

cognitive psychology

Answer 8

General theoretical perspective that focuses on the mental processes underlying learning and behavior; encompasses information processing theory, individual constructivism, and related perspectives

Question 9

constructivism

Answer 9

Theoretical perspective proposing that learners actively construct (rather than passively absorb) knowledge and beliefs from their experiences

Question 10

construction

Answer 10

Mental process in which a learner takes many separate pieces of information and uses them to build an overall understanding or interpretation

Question 11

individual constructivism

Answer 11

Theoretical perspective that focuses on how learners each construct their own idiosyncratic meanings from their experiences

Question 12

neuropsychology

Answer 12

Study of how various brain structures and functions are related to human learning and behavior, also known as cognitive neuroscience

Question 13

memory

Answer 13

Ability to mentally save something that has been previously learned; also, the mental “location” where such information is saved

Question 14

storage

Answer 14

Process of putting new information into memory

Question 15

encoding

Answer 15

Mentally changing the format of new information in order to think about it or remember it more easily

Question 16

retrieval

Answer 16

Process of finding information previously stored in memory

Question 17

sensory register

Answer 17

Component of memory that holds incoming information in an unanalyzed form for a very brief period of time (2 or 3 seconds at most, depending on the modality)

Question 18

attention

Answer 18

Focusing of mental processing on particular stimuli

Question 19

working memory

Answer 19

Component of memory that holds actively thinks about and processes a limited amount of information for a short time.

Question 20

central executive

Answer 20

Component of human memory that oversees the flow of information throughout the memory system

Question 21

executive functions

Answer 21

General mental processes that human beings use to control what they pay attention to, think about, and learn; are presumed to occur within working memory

Question 22

long-term memory

Answer 22

Component of memory that holds skills and knowledge for a relatively long time.

Question 23

cognitive load

Answer 23

Cognitive burden that a particular learning activity places on working memory at any one time; includes both the amount of information learners must simultaneously think about and the specific cognitive processes learners must engage in to understand what they are studying

Question 24

astrocytes

Answer 24

Star-shaped brain cell hypothesized to be involved in learning and memory; has chemically mediated connections with many other astrocytes and with neurons

Question 25

activation

Answer 25

Degree to which something in memory is actively attended to and mentally processed

Question 26

declarative knowledge

Answer 26

Knowledge concerning the nature of how things are, were, or will be

Question 27

procedural knowledge

Answer 27

Knowledge concerning how to do something (e.g., a skill)

Question 28

conditional knowledge

Answer 28

Knowledge concerning appropriate ways to respond (physically or mentally) under various circumtances

Question 29

explicit knowledge

Answer 29

Knowledge that a person is consciously aware of and can verbally descrive

Question 30

implicit knowledge

Answer 30

Knowledge that a person cannot consciously recall or explain but that nevertheless affects the person's thinking and behavior

Question 31

concepts

Answer 31

Mental grouping of objects or events that have something in common

Question 32

schema

Answer 32

Tightly organized set of facts about a specific topic

Question 33

script

Answer 33

Schema that involves a predictable sequence of events related to a common activity

Question 34

theory

Answer 34

Integrated set of concepts and principles developed to explain a particular phenomenon; may be constructed jointly by researchers over time or individually by a single learner

Question 35

rote learning

Answer 35

Learning information in a relatively uninterpreted form, without making sense of it or attaching much meaning to it

Question 36

rehersal

Answer 36

Cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over within a short time frame (typically a few minutes or less) as a possible way of learning and remembering it

Question 37

meaningful learning

Answer 37

Cognitive process in which learners relate new information to things they already know

Question 38

elaboration

Answer 38

Cognitive process in which learners embellish on new information based on what they already know or believe

Question 39

organization

Answer 39

Cognitive process in which learners make connections among various pieces of information they need to learn (e.g. by forming categories, identifying hierarchies, determining cause-and-effect relationships.

Question 40

concept maps

Answer 40

Diagram of concepts and their interrelationships; used to enhance learning and memory of a topic

Question 41

visual imagery

Answer 41

Process of forming a mental picture of an object or idea

Question 42

knowledge base

Answer 42

One's existing knowledge about specific topics and the world in general

Question 43

prior knowledge activation

Answer 43

Process of reminding learners of what they already know relative to a new topic

Question 44

meaningful learning set

Answer 44

Attitude that one can make sense of the information one is studying

Question 45

conceptual understanding

Answer 45

Meaningful learned and well-integrated knowledge about a topic, including many logical connections among specific concepts and ideas

Question 46

mnemonics

Answer 46

Memory aid or trick designed to help students learn and remember one or more specific pieces of information

Question 47

verbal mediator

Answer 47

Word or phrase that forms a logical connection, or mental "bridge", between two pieces of information

Question 48

keyword method

Answer 48

Mnemonic technique in which a learner actually connections two ideas by forming a visual image of one or more concrete objects (keywords) that either sound similar to or symbolically represent those ideas.

Question 49

superimposed meaningful strucutures

Answer 49

Familiar shape, word, sentence, poem or story imposed on information in order to facilitate recall

Question 50

misconceptions

Answer 50

Belief that is inconsistent with commonly accepted and well-validated explanations of phenomena or events.

Question 51

conceptual change

Answer 51

Significant revision of one's existing beliefs about a topic, enabling new, discrepant information to be better understood and explained

Question 52

confirmation bias

Answer 52

Tendency to seek information that confirms rather than discredits current beliefs

Question 53

situated learning and cognition

Answer 53

Knowledge, behaviors, and thinking skills acquired and used primarily within certain contexts, with limited or no retrieval and use in other contexts; sometimes involves dependence on physical or social support mechanisms available only in certain contexts

Question 54

hot cognition

Answer 54

Leanin or cognitive processing that is emotionally charged

Question 55

automaticity

Answer 55

Ability to respond quickly and efficiently while mentally processing or physically performing a task

Question 56

wait time

Answer 56

Length of time a teacher pauses, after either asking a question or hearing a student's comment, before saying something

Question 57

consolidation

Answer 57

Neurological process in which newly acquired knowledge is firmed up in the brain; often takes several hours, sometimes even longer

Question 58

decay

Answer 58

Gradual weakening of information stored in long-term memory, especially if the information is used infrequently or not at all

Question 59

interference

Answer 59

Phenomenon whereby something stored in long-term memory inhibits one's ability to remember something correctly

Question 60

reconstruction error

Answer 60

Construction of a logical but incorrect "memory" by combining information retrieved from one's long-term memory with one's general knowledge and beliefs about the world

Question 61

maintenance rehersal

Answer 61

Rapid repetition of a small amount of information to keep it fresh in working memory