Chapter 6

Question 1

Basics of Piaget

When is most important time for brain development?

Answer 1

Birth to 6 years is most important time for brain dev
Develops as a result of brain activity (repeated)
For Piaget, a childs development came from the interaction of their maturation and experiences in the world

Question 2

assimilation

Answer 2

When new experiences are incorporated into schemas

eh grasping a favorite toy - other toys can be grasped

Question 3

Schema

Answer 3

Mental structures in a mind
allow people to:
simply world
determine what we pay attention to
think quickly

HARD TO CHANGE A SCHEMA

Question 4

Accomodation

Answer 4

When a schema must be modified based on current experience

eg some toys cannot be lifted at all or require two hands

Like good scientists they adapt their theories

Question 5

Equilibriation

Answer 5

Parental correction of children eg doggy/cow forces children to change their schemas.

Equilibriation is the process of reorganizing schemas to match new info or experiences. Over time, if a child has to accommodate much more than assimilate, disequilibrium results.

Equilibriation restores balance by rejecting old and creating new, qualitatively different, more advanced schemas.

Question 6

Sensorimotor phase outline

ages

Answer 6

birth to 2 years
progresses from instinctive reflexes to the start of symbolic thought
Constructs an understanding of the world through physical actions

Object permanence is the main thing learned
Under a certain age, if something is out of sight, it vanishes and they wont look for it

Question 7

Preoperational outline

Answer 7

2-6 years

Begins to represent world with symbols
Symbols represent world and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action
Make believe play
Operations are mental operations such as reversing things in their mind
Around 2 can talk

EGOCENTRIC

Conservation is missing - 2 glasses experiment

Question 8

Concrete operational outline

Answer 8

Child can now reason logically and classify objects into different categories
Can conserve - will pass glass experiment

Question 9

Formal operation outline

Answer 9

Adolescent reasons in more abstract ways

Thought is more idealistic

Question 10

Object permanence A not B search error
(according to Piaget)

Ages when:

a) Do not know an object exists
b) When search for a missing object but their knowledge is incomplete

Hidden object task ages

Answer 10

Piaget claimed that 1-4 month old babies do not know an object exists when they disappear from view

At 8 months baby will search for missing object but still incomplete

THE HIDDEN OBJECT TASK
If you show a baby 9-10 months old an object and then hide it under one cloth then show them moving it to a second one, they look under the first

This is known as the A not B search error

Question 11

Sub-stage 1 of sensorimotor phase

Answer 11

Birth - 1 month
Rely on reflexes
These schemas get stronger and more complicated with age

Question 12

Sub-stage 2 of sensorimotor phase

time?

Answer 12

1-4 months
Reflexes are modified by experience
Primary circular reaction - Use own bodies to accidentally produce a nice event, then try to recreate it. Eg suck thumb once cos of reflex then try to get thumb to mouth

Combine what were different actions into single, integrated actions - touch an object-suck it

Question 13

Sub-stage 3 of sensorimotor phase

Answer 13

4-8 months
Secondary Circular Reactions - Use an object in a pleasing way by accident then try to repeat it eg accidentally shake rattle/keep doing it
1st time an infant explores actions deliberately - might see how rattle held in different ways sounds

Question 14

Sub-stage 4 of sensorimotor phase

when

Answer 14

8-12 months
Onset of deliberate actions
If dad puts his hand between baby and toy - child moves hand
Moving dads hand schema is a means to the end of getting toy
Sign of purposeful behavior

Question 15

Sub-stage 5 of sensorimotor phase

Answer 15

12-18 months
Is an active experimenter
Uses old schemas on new objects to try to understand different outcomes
This is a Tertiary Circular Reaction
Doing things just to see what will happen
Miniature experiments to observe consequences

eg dropping an object many times to see where it falls and how

Question 16

Sub-stage 6 of sensorimotor phase

Answer 16

18-24 months
Can think of what is happening around them
Do make believe play, often by way of Deferred Imitation; acting out an event seen at a previous time
Start to work with Symbols such as words or gestures
Use them to firm an internal, mental image of the world
Eventually, can think of a mental representation without acting it out - is the end of of the sensorimotor phase

Question 17

Criticism of Piaget`s theories

Answer 17

Piaget thought the task of infancy was learning object permanency - understanding objects exist when you cant see them
8-10 month year old children fail the hidden object task
BUT if interval between hiding and looking is short or the two covers look clearly different, kids are more likely to pass
Might be more to do with memory not understanding

 The silver screen experiment
Silver screen swings through 180 degrees
Orange object is behind it
Possible condition - object blocks it
Impossible condition, it doesn't cos there is a trap door it disappears into. It is an illusion

Kids at 4.5 years old stare at impossible condition - maybe they understand the orange object is still there

Question 18

Child as theorist

Answer 18

Kids theories are naive - are not created by specialists nor tested with formal experiments
But are very good!

Question 19

Naive Physics

timeline & months

Answer 19

3-4 months old, know objects cannot pass thorough objects
Objects move along continuous paths

6 months Expect collisions to move stationary objects in proportion to the speed and mass of already moving object

Later in first year, understand gravity

Question 20

Naive Biology

Answer 20

Only animate objects eat and drink
Keys only open inanimate objects
However, might think a computer is “sick”

Question 21

Information processing basics

Answer 21

Human cognition is like computer hardware and software
Mental hardware is neural and mental structures which allow the mind to operate

3 parts
working memory
long-term memory
sensory memory

Is a neo-piagtian theory

All 3 memory stores (sensory, short term, long term) are controlled by the central executive which coordinates everything, controls attention and selects strategies

Question 22

Sensory memory

Answer 22

Newly perceived information is held for a few seconds

Can persist after stimuli ends
Sparkler trail effect

haptic memory (for tough) 
also audio

Question 23

Working memory

Answer 23

Site of ongoing cognitive activity and the information this requires
Systems of components that holds a limited amount of information temporarily in a heightened state of availability for use in ongoing processing
RAM

Question 24

Long-term memory

Answer 24

Limitless, long term storage
Rarely forgotten, hard to access
Can be cued by reminders

Question 25

Other types of memory

Answer 25

procedural episodic/autobiographic semantic

Question 26

Mental software goes through 4 stages

Answer 26

1 - understand question 2 - Search memory for list of information 3 - Compare question with list 4 - Response

Question 27

Robbie Case

Answer 27

Kept piagetian stages nut movement between each was theorized as a result of increases in information processing rather than maturation Neo-piagetian approach

Question 28

Habitation/Dishabitation

Answer 28

When kids are exposed to a stimuli, they go through an Orientating Response Brain waves and heart rate change Over time, with repeated exposure, they get used to it This is habituation, physiological response stops Dis-habituation occurs when they become actively aware of an object again

Question 29

Memory in kids

Answer 29

As early as 2-3 months 1 - an event from the past can be remembered 2 - over time, cannot be 3 - a cue can remind people ``` EXPERIMENT Mobile with ribbon to foot kick foot = mobile moves remembered this weeks after at months, forgot but if experimenter moved the mobile herself, remembered and started kicking aging ``` did not try the same thing with other mobiles therefore the memory is ties to features of a specific thing (ie mobile)

Question 30

Infantile amnesia Why does this exist?

Answer 30

Ppl dont remember below 3-4 years memories form this age are constructed from stories Hard to remember because We encode memories as verbally - babies cant In order to encode memories of events, you must have a sense of self - babies dont collectivists culture have longer periods of amnesia

Question 31

Understanding Numbers

Answer 31

Born with this Long before kids know the names for numbers they are aware of quantities - over their first year If you show images of 2 objects repeatedly get bored If you show one with 3, suddenly interested Can tell the difference By 6 months 1:2 ratio but not 2:3

Question 32

Exploring environment What age to babies become non-egocentric?

Answer 32

Initially children have an EGOCENTRIC frame of reference and cannot see that other people have different perspectives Later they get an objective frame EXPERIMENT Put a child in a room with two windows experimenter comes to window to their left when there is a sound , calls their names and show toys Learn this after a while, turn baby 18- degrees. Up to 12 months, still looks left when sound comes after 12 months, looks right because objective frame of reference

Question 33

Individual differences

Answer 33

Bayleys scale of Infant Development can measure ability against standardized normals The results are culturally specific to the normal sample Doesn't correlate with IQ Ability to habituate and dis-habituate does up to adolescence More cortisol = more memory

Question 34

Phonemes nipple xp

Answer 34

Unique sounds joined together to form words Can distinguish some by one month EXPERIMENT Nipple connects to sound system sucking makes P sounds (pah, po etc) After a while, sucks less If a b sound is introduced, increased sucking Can tell novel sounds therefore can distinguish

Question 35

Development and phonemes

Answer 35

At about 1 year old, kids tune to phonemes of surrounding language Lose ability to distinguish between others

Question 36

Development and words

Answer 36

When children are 7-8 months old they pay attention more to new words than already encountered ones At 6 months can look to right parent (mummy/daddy)

Question 37

Learning words

Answer 37

1 - detect stressed syllables and | 2 - detect symbols that are paired together

Question 38

Infant direct speech

Answer 38

attracts attention more | mommy talk

Question 39

First steps to talking when cooing when babbling when intonation who bablles less

Answer 39

Cooing - up until 2 months Babbling - over 2 long strings of vowels made by child At about 7 months it includes intonation Babbling reflects local language, deaf kids stay monotone Neurodevelopmentally challenged kids babble less

Question 40

First words

Answer 40

Ability to produce sounds is joined with a one year olds ability to perceive speech sounds Usually advanced babbling - mama dada Kids listen more to real speech than nonsense Once they have words, they realize symbols can represent things Gesturing begins at 1 year old

Question 41

Fast Mapping Meaning to Words

Answer 41

Kids learn words slowly at first at 15 months there is the Naming Explosion Fast mapping is the ability for infants to rapidly connect words to their referents (to what they refer)

Question 42

Object names How can parents encourage learning of names

Answer 42

Parents encourage learning names by observing what interests infants and labeling it Only learn the name when it is clear the adult is referring to the object Parents label objects and kids rely on the adults behaviors to interpret the words they hear

Question 43

Learning words - Constraints on names

Answer 43

There are rules babies use to help them limit the conclusions about what words mean 1 - if a new word is heard in the presence of objects they already know the word of and those they don`t, the name refers to an unnamed object 2 - A name refers to a whole object, not one of its parts eg dinosaur not eyes of dinosaur 3 - If an object already has a name and another is given to it; this is a subset of the original named object eg t res for dinosaur 4 - Given many similar category members, if a label is consistently applied to one and only one of them, this word is a proper noun eg Dino is a special dinosaur toy

Question 44

Learning words - Sentence cues

Answer 44

Children hear new words in sentences with words they already know They use this context Eg, that man is juggling those balls If you know the word man and balls, the juggling must be the verb - something done to the balls by the man

Question 45

Naming errors

Answer 45

Lots of mistakes 1 - Underextension Defining a work too narrowly eg car = ONLY family car 2 - Overextension Defining a word too broadly eg all 4 legged animals are doggies Might be another rule: if you do not know the real word for something, say name of related object

Question 46

Styles of Learning Words

Answer 46

Kids may have an individual style of learning words Referential style - primarily learn words that name objects instead of social phrases Kids with this style use language primarily as an intellectual too to learn and talk about objects Expressive style - primarily learn words that allow relations with people Kids with this style use language more as a social tool, to enhance their interactions with others Obviously both important - most children mix the styles

Question 47

A priori knowledge (Core knowledge)

Answer 47

Physics Language acquisition device People - develop social skills Numbers

Question 48

Bayley scale

Answer 48

1 cognitive scale 2 language scale 3 motor scale 4 social emotional scale Asks caregivers about ease of calming, social responsiveness and imitation 5 adaptive behavior scale Adaption to demands of daily life, communication, self-control, following the rules, getting along with others

Question 49

How do children learn

Answer 49

classical conditioning operant conditioning imitation

Question 50

Novel Exposure

Answer 50

play with 4 items, 3 infant knows the name of (apple, dog, car, DAX) Can you give me the dax, pick the one they dont know NEW examples of all 4 items given Asked again, pick the new dax

Question 51

Referential style - primarily learn words that name objects instead of social phrases

Answer 51

Label objects and people with a goal of wanting to be understood Interact more with adults and less with peers Use more single words, building longer phrases from there Enjoy looking at books/labeling the things they see Build on what they say - CAT - Yes it is a cat, it says meow

Question 52

Expressive style - primarily learn words that allow relations with people

Answer 52

Social tool Just go for it Dont care if they are being understood Adults and peers Fewer nouns, more social and functional words Two word phrases eg daddy fall These toddlers learn language by gradually breaking down longer phrases into single words Help them by breaking down and emphasizing certain words iwannagosto Oh you WANT to go to the store

Question 53

Linguistic stress

Answer 53

pay more attn to stresses syllables because they identify start of words better They listen to more to the same syllables in a new order than in a familiar one Difference is where the stress is So can deal with stressed syllables

Question 54

Violation of expectancy method How old were surprised kids?

Answer 54

(a) infants habituated to two events: A short and a tall carrot moving passed a screen. (b) A new screen was used, different color to emphasize window Passed two sizes of carrots again In EXPECTED EVENT, the short carrot moved behind the screen, was not seen in window because it was too short and appeared intact at the other side In UNEXPECTED event, the tall carrot did the same even though it was tall enough to be seen through the window. Kids aged 2.5-3.5 months old stared linger at the unexpected event, suggesting some understanding of object permanence.

Question 55

Hardware system - Central executive

Answer 55

``` Attributed to Prefrontal cortex Conscious part of mind Coordinates incoming info Controls attention Selects, applies and monitors strategies ```

Question 56

Hardware System - 3 memories

Answer 56

Sensory register/memory Sight-iconic touch-haptic STM - must be rehearsed, phonological loop subject to interference LTM - stores perm

Question 57

Orientating response

Answer 57

physical | turns to stimuli

Question 58

Memory experiment the magic shrinking machine When does the verbal memory get better?

Answer 58

Used to test infants verbal and nonverbal memory After being shown how machine works, a child chooses an object from a polkadot bag. They put it into the machine and turn a crank, a "shrunken" object comes out. Results - tested the next day 2-4 year old's nonverbal memory was good (with pictures) Verbal memory was poor below 36 month old kids Recall improves between 36 and 48 months. During which time infantile amnesia subsides.

Question 59

Numbers experiment What age?

Answer 59

To try to see if infants know numbers (a) Infants saw a screen raised in front of a toy animal (b) An identical toy was added in front of the infants POSSIBLE screen dropped to reveal two toys IMPOSSIBLE screen dropped to reveal one toy! 5 months old stare at impossible so must know 1+1=2

Question 60

Core knowledge

Answer 60

Born with this about: physics people quantity