Chapter 6 Flashcards
Basics of Piaget
When is most important time for brain development?
Birth to 6 years is most important time for brain dev
Develops as a result of brain activity (repeated)
For Piaget, a childs development came from the interaction of their maturation and experiences in the world
assimilation
When new experiences are incorporated into schemas
eh grasping a favorite toy - other toys can be grasped
Schema
Mental structures in a mind allow people to: simply world determine what we pay attention to think quickly
HARD TO CHANGE A SCHEMA
Accomodation
When a schema must be modified based on current experience
eg some toys cannot be lifted at all or require two hands
Like good scientists they adapt their theories
Equilibriation
Parental correction of children eg doggy/cow forces children to change their schemas.
Equilibriation is the process of reorganizing schemas to match new info or experiences. Over time, if a child has to accommodate much more than assimilate, disequilibrium results.
Equilibriation restores balance by rejecting old and creating new, qualitatively different, more advanced schemas.
Sensorimotor phase outline
ages
birth to 2 years
progresses from instinctive reflexes to the start of symbolic thought
Constructs an understanding of the world through physical actions
Object permanence is the main thing learned
Under a certain age, if something is out of sight, it vanishes and they wont look for it
Preoperational outline
2-6 years
Begins to represent world with symbols
Symbols represent world and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action
Make believe play
Operations are mental operations such as reversing things in their mind
Around 2 can talk
EGOCENTRIC
Conservation is missing - 2 glasses experiment
Concrete operational outline
Child can now reason logically and classify objects into different categories
Can conserve - will pass glass experiment
Formal operation outline
Adolescent reasons in more abstract ways
Thought is more idealistic
Object permanence A not B search error
(according to Piaget)
Ages when:
a) Do not know an object exists
b) When search for a missing object but their knowledge is incomplete
Hidden object task ages
Piaget claimed that 1-4 month old babies do not know an object exists when they disappear from view
At 8 months baby will search for missing object but still incomplete
THE HIDDEN OBJECT TASK
If you show a baby 9-10 months old an object and then hide it under one cloth then show them moving it to a second one, they look under the first
This is known as the A not B search error
Sub-stage 1 of sensorimotor phase
Birth - 1 month
Rely on reflexes
These schemas get stronger and more complicated with age
Sub-stage 2 of sensorimotor phase
time?
1-4 months
Reflexes are modified by experience
Primary circular reaction - Use own bodies to accidentally produce a nice event, then try to recreate it. Eg suck thumb once cos of reflex then try to get thumb to mouth
Combine what were different actions into single, integrated actions - touch an object-suck it
Sub-stage 3 of sensorimotor phase
4-8 months
Secondary Circular Reactions - Use an object in a pleasing way by accident then try to repeat it eg accidentally shake rattle/keep doing it
1st time an infant explores actions deliberately - might see how rattle held in different ways sounds
Sub-stage 4 of sensorimotor phase
when
8-12 months
Onset of deliberate actions
If dad puts his hand between baby and toy - child moves hand
Moving dads hand schema is a means to the end of getting toy
Sign of purposeful behavior
Sub-stage 5 of sensorimotor phase
12-18 months
Is an active experimenter
Uses old schemas on new objects to try to understand different outcomes
This is a Tertiary Circular Reaction
Doing things just to see what will happen
Miniature experiments to observe consequences
eg dropping an object many times to see where it falls and how
Sub-stage 6 of sensorimotor phase
18-24 months
Can think of what is happening around them
Do make believe play, often by way of Deferred Imitation; acting out an event seen at a previous time
Start to work with Symbols such as words or gestures
Use them to firm an internal, mental image of the world
Eventually, can think of a mental representation without acting it out - is the end of of the sensorimotor phase
Criticism of Piaget`s theories
Piaget thought the task of infancy was learning object permanency - understanding objects exist when you cant see them
8-10 month year old children fail the hidden object task
BUT if interval between hiding and looking is short or the two covers look clearly different, kids are more likely to pass
Might be more to do with memory not understanding
The silver screen experiment Silver screen swings through 180 degrees Orange object is behind it Possible condition - object blocks it Impossible condition, it doesn't cos there is a trap door it disappears into. It is an illusion
Kids at 4.5 years old stare at impossible condition - maybe they understand the orange object is still there
Child as theorist
Kids theories are naive - are not created by specialists nor tested with formal experiments
But are very good!
Naive Physics
timeline & months
3-4 months old, know objects cannot pass thorough objects
Objects move along continuous paths
6 months Expect collisions to move stationary objects in proportion to the speed and mass of already moving object
Later in first year, understand gravity
Naive Biology
Only animate objects eat and drink
Keys only open inanimate objects
However, might think a computer is “sick”
Information processing basics
Human cognition is like computer hardware and software
Mental hardware is neural and mental structures which allow the mind to operate
3 parts
working memory
long-term memory
sensory memory
Is a neo-piagtian theory
All 3 memory stores (sensory, short term, long term) are controlled by the central executive which coordinates everything, controls attention and selects strategies
Sensory memory
Newly perceived information is held for a few seconds
Can persist after stimuli ends
Sparkler trail effect
haptic memory (for tough) also audio
Working memory
Site of ongoing cognitive activity and the information this requires
Systems of components that holds a limited amount of information temporarily in a heightened state of availability for use in ongoing processing
RAM
Long-term memory
Limitless, long term storage
Rarely forgotten, hard to access
Can be cued by reminders
Other types of memory
procedural
episodic/autobiographic
semantic
Mental software goes through 4 stages
1 - understand question
2 - Search memory for list of information
3 - Compare question with list
4 - Response
Robbie Case
Kept piagetian stages nut movement between each was theorized as a result of increases in information processing rather than maturation
Neo-piagetian approach
Habitation/Dishabitation
When kids are exposed to a stimuli, they go through an Orientating Response
Brain waves and heart rate change
Over time, with repeated exposure, they get used to it
This is habituation, physiological response stops
Dis-habituation occurs when they become actively aware of an object again
Memory in kids
As early as 2-3 months
1 - an event from the past can be remembered
2 - over time, cannot be
3 - a cue can remind people
EXPERIMENT Mobile with ribbon to foot kick foot = mobile moves remembered this weeks after at months, forgot but if experimenter moved the mobile herself, remembered and started kicking aging
did not try the same thing with other mobiles therefore the memory is ties to features of a specific thing (ie mobile)
Infantile amnesia
Why does this exist?
Ppl dont remember below 3-4 years
memories form this age are constructed from stories
Hard to remember because
We encode memories as verbally - babies cant
In order to encode memories of events, you must have a sense of self - babies dont
collectivists culture have longer periods of amnesia
Understanding Numbers
Born with this
Long before kids know the names for numbers they are aware of quantities - over their first year
If you show images of 2 objects repeatedly get bored
If you show one with 3, suddenly interested
Can tell the difference
By 6 months 1:2 ratio but not 2:3
Exploring environment
What age to babies become non-egocentric?
Initially children have an EGOCENTRIC frame of reference and cannot see that other people have different perspectives
Later they get an objective frame
EXPERIMENT
Put a child in a room with two windows
experimenter comes to window to their left when there is a sound , calls their names and show toys
Learn this
after a while, turn baby 18- degrees.
Up to 12 months, still looks left when sound comes
after 12 months, looks right because objective frame of reference
Individual differences
Bayleys scale of Infant Development can measure ability against standardized normals
The results are culturally specific to the normal sample
Doesn’t correlate with IQ
Ability to habituate and dis-habituate does up to adolescence
More cortisol = more memory
Phonemes
nipple xp
Unique sounds joined together to form words
Can distinguish some by one month
EXPERIMENT
Nipple connects to sound system
sucking makes P sounds (pah, po etc)
After a while, sucks less
If a b sound is introduced, increased sucking
Can tell novel sounds therefore can distinguish
Development and phonemes
At about 1 year old, kids tune to phonemes of surrounding language
Lose ability to distinguish between others
Development and words
When children are 7-8 months old they pay attention more to new words than already encountered ones
At 6 months can look to right parent (mummy/daddy)
Learning words
1 - detect stressed syllables and
2 - detect symbols that are paired together
Infant direct speech
attracts attention more
mommy talk
First steps to talking
when cooing
when babbling
when intonation
who bablles less
Cooing - up until 2 months
Babbling - over 2 long strings of vowels made by child
At about 7 months it includes intonation
Babbling reflects local language, deaf kids stay monotone
Neurodevelopmentally challenged kids babble less
First words
Ability to produce sounds is joined with a one year olds ability to perceive speech sounds
Usually advanced babbling - mama dada
Kids listen more to real speech than nonsense
Once they have words, they realize symbols can represent things
Gesturing begins at 1 year old
Fast Mapping Meaning to Words
Kids learn words slowly at first
at 15 months there is the Naming Explosion
Fast mapping is the ability for infants to rapidly connect words to their referents (to what they refer)
Object names
How can parents encourage learning of names
Parents encourage learning names by observing what interests infants and labeling it
Only learn the name when it is clear the adult is referring to the object
Parents label objects and kids rely on the adults behaviors to interpret the words they hear
Learning words - Constraints on names
There are rules babies use to help them limit the conclusions about what words mean
1 - if a new word is heard in the presence of objects they already know the word of and those they don`t, the name refers to an unnamed object
2 - A name refers to a whole object, not one of its parts
eg dinosaur not eyes of dinosaur
3 - If an object already has a name and another is given to it; this is a subset of the original named object
eg t res for dinosaur
4 - Given many similar category members, if a label is consistently applied to one and only one of them, this word is a proper noun
eg Dino is a special dinosaur toy
Learning words - Sentence cues
Children hear new words in sentences with words they already know
They use this context
Eg, that man is juggling those balls
If you know the word man and balls, the juggling must be the verb - something done to the balls by the man
Naming errors
Lots of mistakes
1 - Underextension
Defining a work too narrowly
eg car = ONLY family car
2 - Overextension
Defining a word too broadly
eg all 4 legged animals are doggies
Might be another rule: if you do not know the real word for something, say name of related object
Styles of Learning Words
Kids may have an individual style of learning words
Referential style - primarily learn words that name objects instead of social phrases
Kids with this style use language primarily as an intellectual too to learn and talk about objects
Expressive style - primarily learn words that allow relations with people
Kids with this style use language more as a social tool, to enhance their interactions with others
Obviously both important - most children mix the styles
A priori knowledge (Core knowledge)
Physics
Language acquisition device
People - develop social skills
Numbers
Bayley scale
1 cognitive scale
2 language scale
3 motor scale
4 social emotional scale
Asks caregivers about ease of calming, social responsiveness and imitation
5 adaptive behavior scale
Adaption to demands of daily life, communication, self-control, following the rules, getting along with others
How do children learn
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
imitation
Novel Exposure
play with 4 items, 3 infant knows the name of (apple, dog, car, DAX)
Can you give me the dax, pick the one they dont know
NEW examples of all 4 items given
Asked again, pick the new dax
Referential style - primarily learn words that name objects instead of social phrases
Label objects and people with a goal of wanting to be understood
Interact more with adults and less with peers
Use more single words, building longer phrases from there
Enjoy looking at books/labeling the things they see
Build on what they say - CAT - Yes it is a cat, it says meow
Expressive style - primarily learn words that allow relations with people
Social tool
Just go for it
Dont care if they are being understood
Adults and peers
Fewer nouns, more social and functional words
Two word phrases eg daddy fall
These toddlers learn language by gradually breaking down longer phrases into single words
Help them by breaking down and emphasizing certain words
iwannagosto
Oh you WANT to go to the store
Linguistic stress
pay more attn to stresses syllables because they identify start of words better
They listen to more to the same syllables in a new order than in a familiar one
Difference is where the stress is
So can deal with stressed syllables
Violation of expectancy method
How old were surprised kids?
(a) infants habituated to two events:
A short and a tall carrot moving passed a screen.
(b) A new screen was used, different color to emphasize window
Passed two sizes of carrots again
In EXPECTED EVENT, the short carrot moved behind the screen, was not seen in window because it was too short and appeared intact at the other side
In UNEXPECTED event, the tall carrot did the same even though it was tall enough to be seen through the window.
Kids aged 2.5-3.5 months old stared linger at the unexpected event, suggesting some understanding of object permanence.
Hardware system - Central executive
Attributed to Prefrontal cortex Conscious part of mind Coordinates incoming info Controls attention Selects, applies and monitors strategies
Hardware System - 3 memories
Sensory register/memory
Sight-iconic
touch-haptic
STM - must be rehearsed, phonological loop
subject to interference
LTM - stores perm
Orientating response
physical
turns to stimuli
Memory experiment the magic shrinking machine
When does the verbal memory get better?
Used to test infants verbal and nonverbal memory
After being shown how machine works, a child chooses an object from a polkadot bag. They put it into the machine and turn a crank, a “shrunken” object comes out.
Results - tested the next day 2-4 year old’s nonverbal memory was good (with pictures)
Verbal memory was poor below 36 month old kids
Recall improves between 36 and 48 months. During which time infantile amnesia subsides.
Numbers experiment
What age?
To try to see if infants know numbers
(a) Infants saw a screen raised in front of a toy animal
(b) An identical toy was added in front of the infants
POSSIBLE screen dropped to reveal two toys
IMPOSSIBLE screen dropped to reveal one toy!
5 months old stare at impossible so must know 1+1=2
Core knowledge
Born with this about:
physics
people
quantity
