Chapter 6

Question 1

How is thinking broadly defined?

Answer 1

Thinking is any mental activity or processing of information, typically done for a purpose like solving a problem or answering a question.

Question 2

What are the two main forms of thought representation?

Answer 2

Words (e.g., planning an essay) and mental images (e.g., picturing a circle).

Question 3

Define “problem-solving.”

Answer 3

Problem-solving transforms one situation into another to achieve a goal, often moving from an unsatisfactory state to a more desirable one.

Question 4

What are the five main problem-solving strategies?

Answer 4

1. Trial and error
2. Algorithms
3. Mental simulation
4. Forming subgoals
5. Working backward

Question 5

What is trial and error in problem-solving?

Answer 5

It involves trying various solutions until one works, often used by younger individuals or in unfamiliar situations.

Question 6

Define “algorithm” in problem-solving.

Answer 6

A methodical, step-by-step procedure to explore all possible solutions systematically.

Question 7

What is mental simulation?

Answer 7

Visualizing not only success but also the steps needed to solve a problem effectively.

Question 8

Explain “forming subgoals” as a problem-solving strategy.

Answer 8

It involves breaking a large problem into smaller, more manageable steps.

Question 9

What is the “working backward” strategy?

Answer 9

Starting from the desired endpoint and retracing steps to the starting point.

Question 10

How does functional fixedness act as a barrier to problem-solving?

Answer 10

It limits an individual to using an object only in its typical role, hindering creative solutions.

Question 11

What are four common barriers to problem-solving?

Answer 11

1. Poorly defined problems
2. Focusing on irrelevant information
3. Functional fixedness
4. Mental set (relying on past strategies)

Question 12

What is “confirmation bias,” and why is it problematic?

Answer 12

It is the tendency to search for evidence that supports existing beliefs, potentially ignoring better alternatives.

Question 13

Define “decision-making.”

Answer 13

The process of weighing pros and cons of alternatives to make a choice, involving both thought and action.

Question 14

Differentiate between inductive and deductive reasoning.

Answer 14

1. Inductive reasoning: Derives general principles from specific observations (e.g., generalizing research findings).
2. Deductive reasoning: Draws specific conclusions from general principles (e.g., reasoning that “all VF rhythms must be shocked, so Jane in VF must be shocked”)

Question 15

Give an example of deductive reasoning in clinical practice.

Answer 15

Using the general rule “all VF rhythms must be shocked” to decide that a patient in VF should be shocked.

Question 16

Why is reasoning important in healthcare?

Answer 16

It helps practitioners evaluate research findings and make informed decisions about patient care.

Question 17

How do novices and experts differ in clinical reasoning?

Answer 17

• Novices: Rigid, follow established protocols strictly.
• Experts: More fluent and flexible, drawing on experience but sometimes risking errors from overconfidence.

Question 18

What are two dangers of expert clinical reasoning?

Answer 18

1. Making hasty or incorrect assumptions.
2. Overlooking basic assessments when expected outcomes are not achieved.

Question 19

What does research suggest about expert clinical judgment?

Answer 19

Expert judgment is not infallible; errors can occur at all levels of experience, emphasizing the need for case-by-case application of principles.

Question 20

What strategies can improve problem-solving in healthcare?

Answer 20

1. Clearly define the problem.
2. Brainstorm and evaluate potential solutions.
3. Test solutions and adapt as needed.

Question 21

How can thinking and reasoning skills aid future study habits?

Answer 21

Using subgoals, mental simulation, and connecting new knowledge to prior learning helps improve problem-solving and decision-making abilities.