CHAPTER 6

Question 1

Who is Julian Baggini

Answer 1

is a journalist and philosopher who studies the complexities of personal identity. He is the editor-in-chief of the Philosophers’ Magazine.

Question 2

To be fulfilled actualized individuals we must

Answer 2

experience life, in all its twists and turns
 It makes us who we are, rather than who we want (not choose) to be (i.e., flippant; a Persona)

Question 3

The development of the self according to Julian Baggini:

Answer 3

> If you wish to be a benevolent person (value), then you must experience being a benevolent person

> Before we achieve any ability we will fail, make mistakes, and have to try again

> Live life as our highest good, our most excellent self

> We cannot control the world around us, only how we respond to it > we must always respond with courage, temperance, wisdom, and justice

> Life is unpredictable and impermanent

Question 4

Where does psychological distress come from?

Answer 4

An incongruence between the Self and experiences (our beliefs and actions govern this…)

Question 5

Phenomenology involves:

Answer 5

> Phenomenology – morality (beliefs/actions) – (e.g., Crime and punishment – Dostoevsky)

> Tension within humans of good and evil (benevolent and malevolent)

Question 6

A psychologically healthy person is:

Answer 6

Is able to assimilate experiences into their self-structure (beliefs) – good and bad

Is open to experience (actions) rather than reacting to experience in a defensive manner

Question 7

A psychologically unhealthy person:

Answer 7

Incongruent experiences are either denied completely or distorted

> This creates a discrepancy with actual experience and the Self’s awareness of the experience

> This is termed the self-experience discrepancy (i.e., a discrepancy between self and
experience)

> We create defences against this

Question 8

What is the rationalization defense?

Answer 8

The experience to maintain congruence between the self and experience (simply a justification/excuse, but a rational one)
> involves the reality of the situation and self-talk

Question 9

What is the fantasy defense?

Answer 9

Create a fantasy world to maintain congruence

Question 10

What are examples of the fantasy defense?

Answer 10

> I may think I’m extremely valued by others (incongruent view of reality;
narcissism, histrionic)

> I may think I’m extremely unvalued by others (incongruent view of reality;
depression)

> In both, I may feel no or little self-experience discrepancy as it has become pervasive

Question 11

What is defense is associated with the experience discrepancy between the environment and it’s context?

Answer 11

The fantasy defense

Question 12

What defense is associated with the experience discrepancy between others?

Answer 12

The projection defense

Question 13

What defense is associated with the experience discrepancy in the self?

Answer 13

The Rationalization defense

Question 14

Rogers models of developing and fostering psychological change are very prominent today, they include:

Answer 14

Person-centred therapy, ACT, mindfulness therapy, CBT, etc

Question 15

Conditions necessary for Rogerian Therapeutic Change are:

Answer 15

Non-directive approach
Allow clients to reflect on thoughts, feelings, behaviour

Person- or client- centred therapy
Emphasises an active role of the therapist; individualised therapy (responsivity)

Question 16

The therapeutic climate entails:

Answer 16

Client and Therapist equality (i.e., partnership) – aka the “Therapeutic Alliance”

Question 17

What are the three therapist-centred conditions necessary for good therapeutic climate/environment:

Answer 17

1) Genuineness (i.e., authenticity; truthfulness)
2) Unconditional positive regard (i.e., like a parent)
3) Empathic understanding (i.e., compassion)

Question 18

Genuineness entails:

Answer 18

> Therapist is themselves
Open and transparent
Speaks honestly (non-distortive)

> Inter-logic (an absolute truth; “never tell a lie”) vs Consequential (a truth that would hurt the person; “white lie”) [see Gad Saad for more]

Question 19

Unconditional Positive Regard entails:

Answer 19

Therapist communicates a deep and genuine caring for the client as a person

Question 20

Empathetic understanding entails:

Answer 20

Therapist strives to understand how the client perceives the world through active listening and empathetic concern

Question 21

Albert Ellis’ (Rational emotive behavioural therapy)

Answer 21

> The premise of REBT is that humans do not get emotionally disturbed by unfortunate circumstances

> But by how they construct their views of these circumstances

> Based on their language, evaluative beliefs, meanings and philosophies about the world, themselves and others

> Antidote – “reframing”

Question 22

The fundamental assertion of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) is then:

Answer 22

> The way people feel is largely influenced by how they think

> Often considered the 1st cognitive therapy

> However, the roots of REBT and much of cognitive behavioral therapy can be found in the Stoic philosophers Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, Seneca, etc.

Question 23

Hopelessness in REBT theory

Answer 23

> Self-worth and value judgements effected by negative thinking patterns and irrational beliefs

> CBT framework (emotion – cognitions – behaviour)

> Self-compassion is the key:
“You yourself, as much as anybody in the entire universe, deserve your love and affection.” Buddha

Question 24

Who is David Goggins?

Answer 24

David Goggins is a retired Navy SEAL and accomplished ultra-endurance athlete. He is also the Guinness 24-hour pull-up world record holder with 4030 repetitions.

Question 25

Rogerian’s philosophy on life:

Answer 25

> People will know/see if you aren’t acting genuine

> People tend to like/admire the aspects that are genuine and UNIQUE about you – often the very aspects you try to cover up!

> Actual > (true) Ideal Self

Question 26

What are the types of “self” we have?

Answer 26

> We have an actual Self, who we believe we are…

> We also have an ideal Self (not a “should/ought” Self) who we aim to be (process, meaning, purpose)… for example, what’s your current ‘project’?

> Distress occurs when there is a large discrepancy (difference) between the Self and the ideal Self
Therapy must bring these two selves closer together

Question 27

Rogers was the first to:

Answer 27

open psychotherapy up to systematic investigation

Question 28

Outcomes of client centered therapy:

Answer 28

> Used Q-Sort before and after therapy

> Can correlate scores given to actual and ideal self ratings

> Correlation, r, (similarity between actual and ideal) should be higher after therapy

> Indicates greater congruence between actual and ideal self

Question 29

Butler & Haigh (1954) - Correlation (similarity between actual and ideal)

Answer 29

Therapy scenario: Subjects that were psychologically distressed…

> Before therapy r = 0 (no relationship)

> After therapy r = 0.34 (“moderate” positive relationship)

> 6-month follow-up r = 0.31 (showed consistency and sustainability)

> Subjects that were not psychologically distressed? r = 0.58

Question 30

What is the human potential movement?

Answer 30

> As a backlash to Freud (and Behaviourism) the human potential movement, existentialism and positive psychology emerged

> Human potential movement (positive growth):
Inner perception of external experience (e.g., REBT)
People have the capacity to move forward and realize their potentials (Murphy, 1958)

Question 31

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and the human potential movement?

Answer 31

People are good or neutral, rather than evil (e.g., not made up of unconscious crude drives)

Psychopathology results from a twisting or hindering of our natural growth as an organism by social structures (critique of the superego)

People should be free to be themselves and express themselves > Existentialism influence – we have personal responsibility, due to our free will (choice)

Question 32

Psychological needs according to Maslow?

Answer 32

are our personal responsibilities

… people need us and rely on us to fulfil our responsibilities (belonging)

… this brings about esteem

… bringing purpose, meaning to our lives (and others), hence self-actualization

Question 33

Self-Actualizing individuals according to Maslow?

Answer 33

Accept themselves and others for who they are (acceptance)

Can be concerned for themselves and others (compassion and empathy)

Respond to the uniqueness of situations, not mechanically (psychological flexibility)

Can form intimate relationships with at least a few people (intimacy)

Spontaneous and creative (open to experience)

Resist conformity and be assertive while responding to the demands of reality (authentic)

Question 34

Psychopathology according to Maslow

Answer 34

He (purposely) studied in detail, healthy, self-fulfilling, self-actualizing individuals

Insight into personality doesn’t come from looking at:
(1) distressed individuals with psychological problems or
(2) normal people

It comes from studying abnormal people – those that are unusually high functioning, self-actualized individuals…

Question 35

Martin Seligman and the PPM

Answer 35

Martin Seligman (contemporary “leader” of PPM)
We have been too focused on the distressed, troubled, clinical cases and thus have created negative theories of people

PPM psychologists interested in the nature of human strengths (aka virtues)

Question 36

Flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) and PPM

Answer 36

Positive state of consciousness with the following characteristics:

> A perceived match between personal skills + environmental challenge (congruence)

> Perception the task is challenging but achievable

> High level of focused attention

> Lack of distractions and irrelevant thoughts

> Intrinsic enjoyment in the activity

> Loss of self-consciousness (self-un-aware; time flies)

Those situations when you just “lose time” and everything just “falls into place”
Think of times you might have had flow…
Playing a sport? Video game? Hobbies? Passion? Playing an instrument? Deep talk with a friend? Writing an essay on a topic of interest?

Question 37

What is Existentialism?

Answer 37

Overarching concern with existence
Emphasis on the human condition, having consciousness, existing; the significance of the individual
It involves the search for meaning in human existence…
What is the purpose of life?

Question 37

What is Existentialism?

Answer 37

Overarching concern with existence
Emphasis on the human condition, having consciousness, existing; the significance of the individual
It involves the search for meaning in human existence…
What is the purpose of life?

Question 38

What emphasis is within existentialism?

Answer 38

Overarching concern with existence
Emphasis on the human condition, having consciousness, existing; the significance of the individual
It involves the search for meaning in human existence…
What is the purpose of life?

Question 39

What is the phenomenology perspective?

Answer 39

Understanding the unique experience of others as sentient beings

Question 40

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) and existentialism:

Answer 40

1. Consciousness, Nothingness, Freedom and Responsibility

> Humans differ from animals in that we are free from simple deterministic drives

> We have conscious (and abstract) action

> We can imagine alternatives (non-reality; scenarios; predictions) and we can imagine things not existing – “nothingness” (space and matter)

> Because we have freedom of alternatives – we have the freedom to choose actions

> “With freedom comes responsibility”
“I had no choice”… (no, we must take responsibility for our actions)
Morality and incongruence

Question 41

What is “nothingness”

Answer 41

> Without space we can’t have solids (i.e., matter)

> Solid and Space are inseparable

> We know things only by comparison…

> So, first, if we have conscious thought then we must have unconscious thought

> What does this mean for you and your personality?

> How am I defining my Self as a comparison… our comparisons are limited by our experience

Question 42

Mortality salience tests:

Answer 42

Mortality salience tests the hypothesis that the more death anxiety one faces the more one will commit to one’s cultural and political beliefs

Question 43

Increases in mortality salience (aka the fear of death) produce:

Answer 43

Greater fondness for members of one’s own ‘group’ and rejection of members of different groups
Greater anxiety about blasphemous attitudes towards one’s own groups’ cultural ‘group’ icons
Greater physical aggression towards those that attack ones ‘group’
Increased donations to charities that benefit one’s ‘group’

Question 44

Terror Management Theory (TMT)

Answer 44

(1) people’s desire to live

(2) people’s awareness that death is inevitable
How do we cope with knowing we are going to die?
Once life’s fragility becomes a personal truth instead of a philosophical concept that happens to “other people,” we become more capable of celebrating whatever days and experiences remain to us instead of focusing on everyday hassles.

Question 45

Specific research looking at discrepancies not between ideal and actual but among parts of the self finds:

Answer 45

Ideal self and the “ought” self
Ideal self concerned with hopes, ambitions and desires
Ought self concerned with duties, responsibilities and obligations
“Things I ought to do”

Question 46

Discrepancies with the actual self result in:

Answer 46

Ideal: leads to disappointment, sadness, depression (e.g., cant live up to ideal – perfectionism video)
Ought: leads to fear, threat, anxiety; avoidance and social isolation  neg. reinforcement + incr. control)

Question 47

Research shows discrepancies between:

Answer 47

Actual - Ideal (leads to depression) (feelings of hopelessness?)
Actual - Ought (leads to anxiety disorders) (feelings of global anxiety?)

Question 48

Critical evaluation of phenomenological theory: scientific observation

Answer 48

The Database
> Some data based on clinical observations …but made these open to public scrutiny

> Allowed himself to be put under the spotlight; judged
Rogers and colleagues sought objectivity
Q-Sort technique
Semantic Differential

Only used explicit methods, e.g. self-report
> No implicit (unconscious) measures (e.g. dream analysis, symbolism, free-association, etc.)
> Lack of cultural diversity

Question 49

Critical evaluation of phenomenological theory: Systematic?

Answer 49

> Little systematic theorising in general.
However, parts are logical and systematic
Formal personality theory is cogent and logical
Parent-child interactions and how those influence the development of a self-concept

> Rogers didn’t like to theorise
Thought he was too subjective
Thought his theory was immature
Would have liked a model that would stand mathematic rigour

> Overall it is systematic, but perhaps less so than others we will cover

Question 50

Critical evaluation of phenomenological theory: testable

Answer 50

> Some aspects of the Rogerian theory are testable
Particularly the actual and ideal self concept (but self report)

> Overall the “self-concept” is testable
Necessary and sufficient conditions for psychological change are among the very best in psychotherapy and are still used today
But Self is often derived through Trait theory – Big 5 factor model for example.

> However,
A universal motive towards self-actualisation?
Another way to think about “actualisation” is that we are moving towards our actual-ideal Self
…and the pursuit of an ought, should-ideal (i.e, perfectionism) or ought-ideal (societies “perfection”) is dropped
Only the path (aiming with purpose) to a “true” Self is taken

Question 51

Critical evaluation of phenomenological theory: applications:

Answer 51

Simply Profound.
(1) Interpersonal relationship between therapist and client
Therapeutic alliance (contemporary terminology)
Most important element

(2) Developed methods to objectively test effectiveness of therapy (the first!)

(3) Person-centred approach
Empowered clients to improve their own lives
It was up to them in the end – aim was to instil and support a sense of personal responsibility in the client
Only you can self actualise you and there is no manual for that…

You are your internal thoughts and the only thing you are in control of is what you do with them

Question 52

Critical evaluation of phenomenological theory: major contributions- Rogerian theory and the Client-Centred approach (Strengths and Weaknesses)

Answer 52

Rogerian theory and the Client-Centred approach:

Strengths:
Focuses on aspects of human existence that are neglected by most
The self concept and human potential for growth
Provides concrete therapeutic strategies and settings
First person to do this and the strategies remain today
Brought scientific objectivity to personality psychology

Limitations:
Does not attend to phenomena that lies outside conscious experience (…but?)
Little attention to cross-cultural differences and situational differences

Question 53

What are human strengths – how do we identify them? (PPM theory and Seligman)

Answer 53

It is an enduring quality that is beneficial in a variety of domains
e.g. wisdom, compassion, honesty, integrity, etc.

Parents and society foster these “strengths” in children, and, if developed, it is celebrated by one’s community (e.g. wise-man vs. “the fool”)

The strength is valued in almost all cultures in the world…