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Biology > Chapter 5 - Endocrinology and Immunology > Flashcards

Chapter 5 - Endocrinology and Immunology Flashcards

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1
Q

What role do phagocytes play in the immune response?

A

They leave the blood through pores in the blood vessels and enter the tissues to attack and destroy forein bacteria and viruses by phagocytosis.

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2
Q

What six hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary?

A
  • prolactin (PRL)
  • growth hormone (GH)
  • luteinizing hormone (LH)
  • follicule stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
  • adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
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3
Q

What two hormones are secreted by the posterior pituitary and where are they synthesized?

A
  • oxytocin
  • antidiuretic hormone (ADH)/vasopressin

They are synthesized in the hypothalamus.

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4
Q

Which class of antibody binds to mast cells and is involved in the allergic reaction?

A

IgE

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5
Q

When a peptide hormone binds a cell surface receptor, what is the first step of its second-messenger cascade?

A

The hormone-receptor complex activates a G protein.

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6
Q

Which class of antibody is produced a few days after the IgM is secreted?

A

IgG

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7
Q

What do monocytes become in the immune response?

A

macrophages

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8
Q

Which class of antibody is able to cross the placenta?

A

IgG

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9
Q

Describe insulin’s second-messenger cascade.

A

It binds to a specific transmembrane receptor. The cytoplasmic portion of that receptor is converted into a tyrosine kinase that autophosphorylates the amino acid tyrosine, which enhances the activity of the tyrosine kinase.

The insulin receptor can also internalize and act as a second messenger itself.

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10
Q

What is the general role of T lymphocytes in the immune response?

A

They are responsible for cell-mediated immunity.

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11
Q

Which class of antibody is produced a few days after detection of an antigen?

A

IgM

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12
Q

What two types of cells make up blood?

A
  • erythrocytes (red blood cells)
  • leukocytes (white blood cells)
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13
Q

Where are Class I MHC protein receptors found?

A

on almost every one of our cells

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14
Q

Which class of antibody is most abundant?

A

IgG

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15
Q

Define humoral mediated immunity

A

immune response mediated by macromolecules in the extracellular fluids such as antibodies

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16
Q

What does IP3 typically interact with and cause?

A

It interacts with the endoplasmic reticulum to stimulate the release of Ca2+ into the cytoplasm

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17
Q

Where are red blood cells produced?

A

in the marrow of the sternum, ribs, and vertebrae

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18
Q

What role does histamine play in the immune response?

A

It acts on endothelial cells, causing an increased permeability to cells like neutrophils.

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19
Q

What recognizes an antigen on a macrophage’s MHC protein and what happens when it binds the antigen?

A

Receptors on a cytotoxic T cell recognize the antigen-Class I MHC protein complex and bind. The macrophage releases the growth factor interleukin-1 and the cytotoxic T cell releases the growth factor interleukin-2 causing the proliferation of more cytotoxic T cells.

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20
Q

What three ways do antibodies work against foreign invaders?

A
  • Directy Block: bind antigens, physically blocking invader’s access to host cell
  • Complement: bind antigens, allow a complement protein to recognize the antigen-antibody complex and trigger an immune response: membrane attack complex (MAC) lets water into the bacterial cell and it lyses
  • Cell Surface Coating: bind antigens and coat invader’s cell surface, “tagging” it to be recognized by phagocytes or cytotoxic T cells
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21
Q

What are the three types of T lymphocytes?

A
  • cytotoxic T cells (kill T cells)
  • helper T cells
  • suppressor T cells
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22
Q

Which cells secrete glucagon?

A

α cells

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23
Q

What hormone is released and from where when the metabolic rate of the body is too low?

A

thyroxine from the thyroid

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24
Q

In the catecholamine second-messenger cascade, what does the G protein do to inactivate?

A

It hydrolyzes the bound GTP to GDP and Pi.

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25
Q

What does a protein kinase do?

A

It transfers the end phosphate (gamma phosphate) of ATP to a specific amino acid residue of a substrate protein (phosphorylates).

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26
Q

What is an antigen?

A

It is a foreign substance (protein or polysaccharide) which has a high molecular weight that has entered the body and induces a particular immune response. It is located on the surface of an invader.

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27
Q

In the catecholamine second-messenger cascade, what does the G-protein-GTP complex do?

A

The G protein-GTP complex diffuses through the membrane to activate membrane-bound adenylate cyclase enzymes.

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28
Q

In the catecholamine second-messenger cascade, what is the second-messenger?

A

cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

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29
Q

What general role do B lymphocytes play in the immune response?

A

They circulate in the blood and to lymph organs and are responsible for humoral mediated immunity. They can differentiate into plasma cells.

30
Q

What connects the four chains (2 heavy, 2 light) in an antibody?

A

disulfide bonds

31
Q

Where are white blood cells produced?

A

in the tissues of the lymph and partly in bone marrow

32
Q

What does DAG typically interact with and cause?

A

It interacts with membrane-bound protein kinase C (PKC), stimulating it with the help of Ca2+ to phosphorylate and activate another enzyme.

33
Q

What specifically does cholera do to affect the second-messenger cascade?

A

It binds to active G protein, preventing it from inactivating, so cAMP is continually synthesized. cAMP causes the intestinal cells to secrete digestive fluids ► diarrhea.

34
Q

What is the role of memory B and memory T cells?

A

They “remember” antigens and proliferate faster during the same invasion of a foreign body.

35
Q

What differs between classes of antibodies?

A

composition of their heavy chains

36
Q

In the peptide hormone second-messenger cascade, what is the second-messenger?

A

IP3

37
Q

What are antibodies/immuniglobulins (Ig)?

A

proteins that are synthesized in response to an antigen that has been introduced to the body

38
Q

What happens when a macrophage engulfes an antigen?

A

It breaks it into fragments which are released into the macrophage’s cytosol and transported to its membrane where they bind to the Class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC) protein.

39
Q

What is paracrine regulation?

A

A signalling chemical is released from a cell to influence its direct neighbors.

40
Q

What are the clusters of cells called in the pancreas that secrete hormones?

A

Islets of Langerhans

41
Q

Define cell-mediated immunity

A

An immune response that does not involve antibodies, but phagocytes and cytotoxic T cells

42
Q

Where do T cells originate?

A

thymus gland

43
Q

Which class of antibody is the first to be produced in response to an antigen?

A

IgM

44
Q

What are the two types of lymphocytes?

A
  • T lymphocytes (T cells)
  • B lymphocytes (B cells)
45
Q

What enzyme does PKA stimulate to perform glycogenolysis? In which cell does this take place?

A

PKA phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase which catalyzes the conversion of glycogen to glucose. This takes place in hepatic liver cells.

46
Q

What is meant by amplification of a hormone signal?

A

Each enzyme in the cascade activates many more molecules in the next step of the sequence.

47
Q

What do plasma cells do?

A

synthesize and secrete antibodies

48
Q

What is the precursor molecule to steroid hormones?

A

cholesterol

49
Q

After a catecholamine binds its receptor, what is the next step in the second-messenger cascade?

A

The hormone-receptor complex interacts with a membrane-bound G protein, which exchanges GDP for GTP.

50
Q

Which class of antibody is found in milk and helps protect nursing infants?

A

IgA

51
Q

Describe the detailed role of B lymphocytes when it comes across an antigen.

A

They have Class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) protein on their surface, along with antibodies. When an antigen binds its antibodies, the B lymphocyte engulfs that antigen-antibody complex, degrades it, and releases antigen fragments to its Class II MHC protein to “display” the antigen.

52
Q

What are the three classes of hormones?

A
  • peptide
  • amine
  • steroid
53
Q

Which class of antibody has an unknown function?

A

IgD

54
Q

What recognizes an antigen on a B lymphocyte’s MHC protein, and what happens when it binds the antigen?

A

Receptors on helper T cells bind the B lymphocyte’s antigen-Class II MHC protein complex and release growth factor interleukins causing the proliferation of B lymphocytes.

55
Q

What role do mast cells play in the immune response? What are they derived from?

A

Derived from white blood cells, they reside in the tissues and release histamine when stimulated.

56
Q

What is a major example of catecholamine hormones?

A

epinephrine (adrenaline)

57
Q

What four regions make up an antibody in order from the lower portions to the terminal ends of the heavy and light chains? How do these fit into domains?

A

Constant Domain:

  • constant (C)

Variable Domain:

  • joining (J)
  • diversity (D)
  • variable (V)
58
Q

Define diuresis

A

excessive loss of urine

59
Q

How do steroid hormones interact with target cell receptors

A

They pass through the cell’s plasma membrane and interact with a receptor in the cytosol or in the nucleus.

60
Q

What major enzyme does cAMP typically interact with?

A

protein kinase A (PKA)

61
Q

How does T cells structure differ from antibody structure?

A

They are very similar in regards to domains and regions, but rather than 4 polypeptide chains, it only has two.

62
Q

In a peptide hormone second-messenger cascade, what is the role of activated G protein?

A

The G protein interacts with the membrane-bound enzyme phospholipase C (PLC), inducing it to hyrolyze phosphatidyl-inositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) to inositol-1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) and 1,2-diacylglycerol (DAG).

63
Q

What cell-surface receptor binds catecholamines?

A

β-adrenergic receptors

64
Q

Where is the antigen binding site of an antibody located?

A

at the end of the variable regions of the heavy and light chains.

65
Q

Which cells secrete insulin?

A

β cells

66
Q

In animals, what is the stored form of glucose?

A

glycogen

67
Q

What two types of cells are phagocytes?

A
  • monocytes
  • neutrophils
68
Q

What is autocrine regulation?

A

Cells release certain chemicals they can respond to themselves.

69
Q

What level of the immune response does HIV affect?

A

It infects helper T cells.

70
Q

Where do thyroid hormones bind and cause?

A

They bind in the nucleus to activate transcription for certain metabolic processes.

71
Q

What do interleukin-1, interleukin-2, and other interleukins do?

A

They stimulate the proliferation of more cytotoxic T cells which can bind invading foreign cells’ antigens, inducing them to lyse.

They also stimulate B lymphocytes to proliferate and form plasma cells that will produce many antibodies which tag antigens, signaling phagocytes to destroy them.

72
Q

What do the adenylate cyclase enzymes do?

A

Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP + PPi.

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