Chapter 5

Question 1

T/F according to DSM, substance abuse is considered a disease

Answer 1

true –> DISEASE MODEL

Question 2

practical consequences of labeling something as a disease?

Answer 2

funding, gets public perception

Question 3

Substance Use Disorder can be described as either ___ or ____

Answer 3

moderate or severe

Question 4

Predisposition Theory

Answer 4

idea that people are born with the disease, or that they acquire it at some point beofre they began to abuse drug
- sugests that some poeple are just more “prone” to become addicts when they use a drug

Question 5

Exposure Theory

Answer 5

idea that addiction is a disease that is caused by repeated exposure to the drug.

Question 6

Theory of Addiction as a Physical dependence

Answer 6

the idea that addiction is caused by a person trying to mitigate the physical illness felt (withdrawal) after the drug has left the system… addiction is the result of negative reinforcement

Question 7

Dependence model

Answer 7

idea that definition means:

1) the state in which a drug produces physical dependence
2) the compulsive self-administration of a drug (addiction)

Question 8

Problem with dependence model

Answer 8

addiction and dependence is not the same thing. it is possible to be addicted to the drug’s effect but not cause any physical-withdrawal syndroms (dependence), like pot.

Question 9

Currently, what does dependence mean now?

Answer 9

dependence indicates only PHYSICAL DEPENDENCE rather than addiction

Question 10

Psychological dependence

Answer 10

idea that a drug may have some sort of psychological withdrawal affect that is non observable that makes an i`ndividual continue using a drug.

Question 11

Problems with physical and psychological dependence theories

Answer 11

1) not all individuals develop physical dependence
2) some will voluntarily stop taking a drug even with the presence of withdrawal symptoms
3) psychological dependence is CIRCULAR in reasoning–> there is no concrete evidence that shows true dependence.

Question 12

disease model

Answer 12

suggests that casual use of a drug is the initial stages of disease.

Question 13

T/F it is important to distinguish casual drug use from drug dependence when modelling addiction in non-human species

Answer 13

true

Question 14

T/F non human models of addiction should reflect the DSM-V criteria

Answer 14

True ex/

• compulsion to seek and take the drug
• loss of control in limiting intake
• emergence of negative emotional state (anxiety, irritability) when access to the drug is prevented. (ex/ defensive burying)

Question 15

Positive Reinforcement model?

Answer 15

model that assumes that drugs are self administered because they act as positive reinforcers that stimulate the increase in frequency of behavior.

ex/ rats will learn to push a lever if they realize they get drugs every time (reinforcers lever pushing behavior)

Question 16

Problems with positive reinforcement model?

Answer 16

1) positive reinforcers can have negative and destructive effects that can motivate people to stop responding (ie get treatment for their addiction).
- even though there are negative things associated with the positive reinforcer, it still often wins because there is immediate pleasureable experience (drunkness), whereas the negative effect is felt later (hangover)

2) positive reinforcer explanation has circular reasoning

Question 17

Name and explain Factors that alter the “reinforcing” value of the drug–> ie the “addictiveness” of a drug

Answer 17

1) abuse potential: if abuse potential is high, it has a higher reinforcing value.
2) Dose of drug–> is the drug given at the optimum level to produce best effects?
3) Genetic Differences–> can the animal metabolize the drug? (if you were to use alcohol as a positive reinforcer, you couldn’t try and condition rats that do not have alcohol dehydrogenase)
4) Relief of Unpleasant Symptoms–> does the drug get rid of “negative reinforcers?”
5) Task demands: can enhance or diminish reinforcing value of drug (people less likely to drink alcohol even if it has pleasureable effect if they know they have to take a driving test after)
6) Stress–> stressed out subjects may be more willing to seek the reinforcing drug if it makes them feel better.
7) Other Deprivations and motivations (hunger)
8) Previous experience with other drugs or the same drug
9) Withdrawal symptoms. withdrawal symptoms can increase drug intake self administration
10) extended access–> if given unlimited access, will take the drug as much as they can often till they die
11) Priming
12) Conditioned reinforcement
13) Second Order Schedule: when another object or stimulus acquires reinforcing properties because of its association with the drug

Question 18

definition of Incentive

Answer 18

the attraction to a specific stimulus

Question 19

Discovery of James Olds and Peter Milner

Answer 19

• electrical stimulation of certain areas of te brain would act as reinforcement and that rats would learn to perform a task in order to cause the stimulation.
• there is a MOTIVATION CONTROL SYSTEM/REINFORCEMENT CENTER in the brain.

Question 20

Activation-sensorimoto hypothesis

Answer 20

idea that dopamine mediates general arousal, physical effot, and motor activity.

Question 21

Relevant structures in the motivation control system founded by Olds and Milner

Answer 21

1) mesolimbic dopamine system: VTA and nucleus accumbens–> involves reward and reinforcement seeking, motivation (ACTIVATION)
2) Motor Loop: Basal Ganglia, Thalamus, Cortex
3) Learning and Memory System: amygdala and hippocampus

2 and 3 apart of GUIDANCE–> system components holds information about PAST ACTIONS AND MEMORIES that helped them achieve what they want

Question 22

Reward Learning Hypotheses

Answer 22

idea that dopamine is used in the acquisition of OPERANTLY conditioned response-reward actions, classically conditioned stimulus-reward, and coding about PREDICTIONS OF REWARD AVAILABILITY based on the guidance system (where reward is, how to achieve it based on past experiences)

Question 23

Motivational control system proceedings

Answer 23

need state triggered (hunger) –> state detected by motivational control system –> mesolimbic system activated –> animal finds food either using the guidance structures (knows theres food in jar) or by finding food accidentally—>VTA makes dopamine and activates nucleus accumben neurons –> information about new-found food stored in hippocampus–> Newly-found food location gains incentive salience

Question 24

Incentive salience?

Answer 24

object that was determined to be important will be able to grab the animal’s attention in the future.
- formed by the MESOLIMBIC SYSTEM–> Incentive salience.

Question 25

Hedonia Hypothesis of Dopamine Fucnction

Answer 25

Idea that dopamine release is an influential reinforcer of behaviour in and of itself because it allows the organism to experience pleasure

-problematic hypothesis because people with Parkinson’s are dopamine deficient yet can still feel pleasure when they eat sweets.

Question 26

rather than a pleasure system, the mesolimbic dopamine system constitutes a _____ system

Answer 26

a wanting system.

Question 27

T/F The greatest high comes from drug classes and routes of administration that result in the fastest and highest peaks of dopamine activity

Answer 27

true

Question 28

T/F: The motivational system in the brain evolved because it increased the survival fitness of organisms

Answer 28

true

Question 29

Define craving

Answer 29

a strong desire or urge to use a specific substance

-a manifestation of incentive salience toward drug associated stimuli

Question 30

Incentive sensitization theory

Answer 30

suggests that drugs alter the functioning of the motivation system and behaviour, and that the incentive motivational effects of drugs and their cues become stronger (SENSITIZED) with repeated exposure due to increased activity of the mesolimbic dopamine system.

-drug cues become HYPER SALIENT and will acquire greater incentive values that can last a very long time.

Question 31

experimental evidence of incentive sensitization theory

Answer 31

By measuring visual attention of heavy drinkers, researchers noticed that drug related stimuli (cups, ice, bottles) are more attention grabbing than other objects in their surroundings, suggesting that the drug has increased levels of salience. (Field et. al)

Question 32

How does incentive sensitization theory explain how some people can crave a drug for the effect even though there are no withdrawal symptoms?

Answer 32

because the motivational aspect (wanting) is SENSITIZED, and the liking aspect shows tolerance. This leads to impulsivity (they want it, but they don’t need it)

Question 33

Hedonic Dysregulation and adaptation

Answer 33

a NEUROBIOLOGICAL THEORY based on the PHYSICAL dependence model where the withdrawal effects/ antireward system “Cancels out” the reward system (COMPENSATORY EFFECTS), causing a tolerance to the intended effects.

• repeated use leads to Allostasis, and the reward system/anti-reward system are dysregulated and the set points become skewed becase there is DISRUPTED/CHANGED TRANSMITTER FUNCTIONING that encompass the reward and anti reward systems.
• the effects of the drugs show less and less but the compensatory/ DYSPHORIA from the antireward systems are felt more and more, (NEGATIVE EMOTIONAL STATE) motivating the user to take larger doses every time (COMPULSION).

Question 34

Experimental evidence of hedonic dysregulation

Answer 34

Drug addicted humans show decreases in the number of D2 receptors. Coupled with the decrease in dopaminergic activity, in cocaine, nicotine, and alcohol abusers results in DECREASED SENSITIVITY of reward circuits to stimulation by natural reinforcers, suggest an overall reduction in the sensitivity of the dopamine component of reward circuitry to natural reinforcers and other drugs in drug-addicted individuals.
(Koob)

recall: D1 and D2 receptors are found in the caudate and putamin in the Basal Ganglia

Question 35

Compare Incentive sensitization to Hedonic Dysregulation

Answer 35

Incentive sensitization:

• can explain impulsivity (cravings due to sensitization)
• psychological addiction
• explains cue-associated relapse
• positive reinforcement model (WANTS)

Hedonic Dysregulation:

• transition from impulsivity to compulsivity
• focus on withdrawal symptoms and dysphoria
• explains stress-related relapse
• Negative reinforcement model?

Question 36

Why is Hedonic Dysregulation a negative reinforcement model?

Answer 36

Because the user is trying to get away from the symptoms (withdrawal symptoms=negative reinforcement). User engages in behavior (looks for drugs) to remove the negative reinforcement

Question 37

Why is Incentive sensitization a positive reinforcement?

Answer 37

Because the cravings drive using, but there is no withdrawal effects present. the drug effects are the positive reinforcement, driving the “Want” behavior

Question 38

T/F: Addicts show deficites in metabolic activity and grey matter volume in the prefrontal cortex

Answer 38

True- this might contribute to compulsivity and impulsivity