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PSYC-2920 > Chapter 4 > Flashcards

Chapter 4 Flashcards

1
Q

What’re the main structures that are deemed as the forebrain portion?

A

1) Basal Ganglia
2) Limbic System
- hippocampus and amygdala
3) Thalamus
4) Hypothalamus
5) Cortex

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2
Q

The dominant excitatory and inhibitory receptors active in the Cortex?

A

glutamate and GABA

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3
Q

The visual information is projected to the back of the brain where the primary ______ is, which is located in the _____ lobe

A

primary visual cortex, located in the occipital lobe

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4
Q

sound information is projected into the _____ cortex, located in the _____ lobes

A

Primary auditory cortex, located in the temporal lobes

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5
Q

Sensory input and the sense of taste is relayed to the ____ cortex, located in the ____ lobes

A

relayed to the primary somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobes

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6
Q

What is the function of secondary and association cortices?

A

to further process sensory information, integrate them with other perceptions, and store them as memories.

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7
Q

Function of the primary motor cortex

A

principal area responsible for commanding VOLUNTARY MOTO ACTIONS; located close to the somatosensory cortex in the frontal lobes

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8
Q

Why does the right side of the primary motor cortex control the left side of the body and vise versa?

A

Because the axons of the MOTONEURONS of the primary motor cortex cross over in the lower medulala, connecting with striated muscles on the other side of the body

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9
Q

Are motor commands planned in the primary motor cortex?

A

no , the association motor areas (PFC) anticipate and plan, the PMC facilitates the direct actions.

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10
Q

Rostral?

A

the frontal areas of the brain, usually referring to the pre frontal cortex, because it is in front of the primary motor cortex

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11
Q

____ Cortex is involved in higher levels of cognitive functioning like judgement, planning, decision making, insight, abstract reasoning etc.

A

Area in the Pre Frontal Cortex

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12
Q

the ____ and the _____ are actually part of the limbic system, but are considered to be parts of the Cortex.. Functions?

A

1) cingulate cortex
2) entorhinal cortex

both mediate attention, response competition and selection; conditioned drug seeking, learning and memory.

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13
Q

Teratogens?

A

Drugs that create severe malformations, like thalidomide

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14
Q

Functional Teratology

A

Drugs that cause malformations or disruptions in the brain that can be detected only after studying the organism’s behavior (ex/ FASD)

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15
Q

4 Main Criteria in order for a compound to be considered a Neurotransmitter

A

1) the substance is synthesized within the Neuron by a coexisting enzyme
2) the substance is RELEASED in response to cell depolarization
3) the substance BINDS TO RECEPTORS s to alter the post synaptic cell
4) the substance can be REMOVED or DEACTIVATED by some mechanism within the synaptic cleft

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16
Q

Small Molecule Neurotransmitters are often stored in ____ in the terminal bulbs, and are released via ____ upon stimulation from an action potential. The transmitter can then bind to either ____ or ____ receptors to facilitate change

A

1) stored in vesicles
2) released from terminal bulbs via exocytosis
3) can bind to either ionotropic or metabotropic receptors

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17
Q

Neuroactive peptides

A

short chains of amino acids that are considered to be LARGE MOLECULE neurotransmitters, function as NEUROMODULATORS

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18
Q

Neuroactive peptides often bind to _____ receptors to produce ______ (rate) effects due to the production of second messengers

A

Neuroactive peptides often bind to METABOTROPIC receptors to produce SLOW AND LONGER LASTING effects due to the production of second messengers (recall from G protein stimulation)

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19
Q

How are Neuroactive peptides removed from the synapse when they are no longer needed?

A

they are DEGRADED via enzymes. Unlike small molecule neurotransmitters, they can not go back into terminal bulb via reuptake.

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20
Q

Difference between hormone and neurotransmitter

A

neurotransmitters cause change and carry messages over very short distances, and are usually only produced by brain cells. hormones can be produced by glands, organs and some brain cells, and can carry messages and facilitate biochemical change over long distances and can circulate through the blood stream

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21
Q

A substance that is secreted from a brain structure that exerts effects on synapses but is not necessarily a transmitter is called

A

neurohormone

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22
Q

Two classes of the biogenic amines, what neurotransmitters fall within the categories?

A

1) catecholamines include
- dopamine
- epinephrine/noepinephrin

2) Indolamines
- 5;HT
- Histamine
- Serotonin

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23
Q

Two main excitatory and two main inhibitory neurotransmiters

A 
excitatory= glutamate and aspartate
inhibitory= GABA and glycine
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24
Q

What are opioid peptides? Examples

A 
opioid peptides are large molecule neuropeptides that are morphine-like transmitters. examples are 
beta-endorphine, 
enkephalins, 
dynorphins, 
endomorphins and nociceptin.
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25
Q

How are neurons classified?

A

based on the primary neurotransmitter they release

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26
Q

Cholinergic neuron

A

neurons that release actylcholine

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27
Q

adrenergic neuron

A

neuron that releases epinephrine

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28
Q

noradrenergic neuron

A

neuron that releases nor-epinephrine

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29
Q

dopaminergic neuron

A

neuron that releases dopamine

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30
Q

serotonergic neuron

A

neuron that releases serotonin and uses serotonin

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31
Q

Agonist

A

drug that facilitates the effect of a transmitter by increasing the transmitter synthesis, increasing the release of neurotransmitter into the synapse, by destroying degradtive enzymes to keep the transmitters in the synapse, to BLOCK AUTORECPETORS to stop transmitter inhibiton from occurring, by blocking reuptake, by activiting post synaphtic receptors, etc.

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32
Q

Antagonist

A

drug that blocks the excitatory or inhibitory effect of the transmitter by stopping transmitter synthesis, by blocking the post synaptic receptors from being activated, by facilitating degrative breakdown, to activate autoreceptors in order to inhibit further neurotransmitter release etc.

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33
Q

Direct agonist

A

chemical that mimics the effect of a neurotransmitter

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34
Q

partial agonist

A

chemical that has an affinity for the same receptor as a particular transmitter, but activates the receptor only weakly.

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35
Q

Direct antagonists/ receptor blockers

A

drugs that bind to receptor sites but DO NOT activate them, or PREVENT the actual neurotransmitter from binding and exerting it’s effects.

36
Q

How and where is acetyl choline synthesized

A

synthesized in cholinergic cells by combining acetate and choline with the help of an enzyme called choline acetyltransferase

37
Q

Enzynme that degrades Ach

A

acetylcholineesterase

38
Q

How does sarin and other nerve gases work?

A

by interfering with the transmission across cholinergic synapses

39
Q

What’re the two major systems of cholinergic synapses?

A

1) within the basal forbrain
involves basal nucleus of Meynert and the Medial Septal Nuclei, which project their axons in the thallamus (relay), hippocampus (memory), amygdala (emotion), where Ach is released. This Ach system plays role in cortical activation and in learning and memory

2) Within the pons
involves mesopontine tegmentum
-projects axons into thallamus (relay), basal ganglia, cerebellum (fine motor control including eye movements), also VTA (reqrd system).
-plays role in REM sleep and in the rewarding effects of drugs

40
Q

Two types of cholinergic synapses, how are they excited and inhibited

A

1) Nicotinic receptors–> all ionotropic
- located in neuromuscular junctions
- when stimulated, the ion channel opens to allow influx of sodium and efflux of potassium
- excited by nicotine, inhibited by curare
- if inhibtied, causes paralysis and death because the synapses are connected to muscle fibers.

2) Muscarinic receptors –> all metabotropic receptors
- activates second messenger systems to open potassium and chlorine channesl
- allowes HYPERPOLARIZATION
- stimulated by muscarine, blocked by atropien and scopolamine
- muscarinic receptors involved in the functioning of the ANS of the PNS

41
Q

Amino acid precursor of chatecholamines?

A

tyrosine

42
Q

chatecholamines biosynthetic pathway

A

Tyrosine –> L dopa —> dopamine –> norepinephrine –> epinephrine

43
Q

MAO vs MAOI

A

monoamine oxidase- helps break down monoamines. MAOI is an inhibitor of the enzme, thus allowing more monoamines to stay in the synapse.

44
Q

what do stimulants do to Monoamines?

A

facilitates release of Monoamines (including adrenaline)

45
Q

What does cocaine do to monoamines?

A

blocks reuptake so that more monoamines stay in the synapse longer.

46
Q

Which dopamanergic system does DA not act as a transmitter?

A

Dopamine acts as a neurohormine in the tubberoinfundibular pathway. Dopaminergic neruons in the hypothallamus release DA into the hypophyseal portal system (circulatory system that connects the hypothalamus and pituitary gland) to INHIBIT THE RELEASE OF PROLACTIN

47
Q

4 systems formed by dopaminergic neurons

A

1) tuberofundibular pathway: involved in the hypophyseal portal system to inhibit the relase of prolactin
2) nigrostriatal pathway (MESOSTRIATAL): spans from the substantia nigra to the striatum in Basal ganglia–> system aids in motor control.
3) mesolimbic pathway–> spans VTA to nucleus accumbens to various regions in limbic system like Hippocampus and amygdala.
4) mesocortical pathway–> spans VTA to cortex

48
Q

What happens when dopamine degeneration occurs in the nigrostriatal pathway?

A

linked to Parkinson’s disease because the Nigrostriatal pathway spans the substantia nigra and the basal ganglia, both of which are involved in motor skills

49
Q

Difference between D1 and D2 receptors, where are they located?

A

located in the caudate and putamen and the mesolimbic system.

D2 receptor activation= inhibiton of cAMP second messenger system pathway
D1 receptor activation = excitation of cAMP second messenger system

50
Q

Where does the noradrenergic system span?

A

from locus coeruleus (hind brain pons–>ANS function), to hippocampus (memory), basal ganglia (motor), cortex (planning and motor), cerebellum (fine motor), hypothalamus (homeostasis regulation).

51
Q

What does the noradrenergic system affect? What happens when this system is compromised?

A

affects attention, sleep and wakefulness, feeding behaviors and emotion? Disfunction of this system associated with ADHD and depression

52
Q

Main cell body collections in the serotonergic system

A

1) DORSAL raphe nucleus and MEDIAN raphe nucleus.

53
Q

What type of receptors are serotonergic? What does the serotonergic system impact?

A

All metabotropic receptors except one. almost all control regulation of second messengers such as cAMP, regulates sleep, mood, wake cycle, appetite.

54
Q

Glutamate is an _____ amino acid

A

excitatory, and run almost throughout the entire brain.

55
Q

T/F Glutamate binds to both metabotropic and ionotropic receptors

A

True- they bind to both

56
Q

Name three ionotropic receptors glutamate binds to, what does this trigger?

A

1) Kainate, AMPA, NMDA–> allows influx of sodium and efflux of potassium.

57
Q

T/F to activate the glutaminergic receptors, only glutamate needs to bind to them

A

False. the receptors often have multiple binding sites for other ions like zinc, magnesium, as well as glycine and polyamines.

58
Q

What prevents the NMDA ionotropic receptor from staying open during resting potential?

A

the opening is blocked by magnesium and (VOLTAGE DEPENDENT). When the potential increases, the Mg2+ will first dislodge, allowing glutamate a place to bind, and then when glutamate AND glycine binds, the receptor will fully activate, allowing sodium to rush in.

59
Q

What is excitotoxicity?

A

overstimulation of glutamate receptors, including NMDA receptors, leading to receptor loss and decrease function.

60
Q

enzymes involved in making glutamate from glutamine?

A

glutaminase, glutamine synthetase

61
Q

enzymes involved in making GABA

A

glutaminase, glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)

62
Q

T/F: to activate GABA receptors, only GABA needs to bind to them

A

False. GABA receptors contain complex binding sites and also contain additional sites where barbituates, alcohol, and benzodiazapines can bind.

63
Q

Is glycine inhibitory or excitatory?

A

inhibitory

64
Q

where are the majority of glycine receptors?

A

lower brain stem and spinal cord.

65
Q

What type of receptor are glycine receptors?

A

ionotropic always. controls Cl- ion channel to produce inhibitory effects (IPSP)

66
Q

What Amino acid is a precursor of glycine?

A

serine

67
Q

Role of Adenosine

A

when neurons are running low on O2 and energy, they release adenosine which causes the DILATION of blood vessels in the cells, increased blood dlow, increased oxygen supply. Plays a major role in sleep and wakefullness. (adenosine makes you sleepy_. Caffeine can INHIBIT adenosine receptors (acts as an antagonist) and thus wakes you up.

68
Q

What is the difference between CB1 receptors and normal receptors

A

CB1 receptors are actually found on the PRE-SYNAPTIC CELL and are activated by RETROGRADE MESSENGERS (endocannabinoids) that are released from the post synaptic cell when there are too many action potentials happenings. They STOP the presyn. cell from firing anymore trasnmitters stimulating G proteins and stoping Ca2+ channels from opening, effectively inhibiting any more APs.

69
Q

What exogenous substance will activate CB1 receptors?

A

THC- causes sedation because activation of CB1 stops neurotransmitter release.

70
Q

T/F Endocannabinoids are synthesized and stored in vesicles by neurons

A

false, they are made by lipid compounds are immediately diffuse across the post synaptic cell membrane to bind to CB1 receptors on the presyn cell.

71
Q

Function of Nitric Oxide

A

THEY DO NOT BIND TO RECEPTORS: they activate enzymes GUANYLATE CYCLASE, responsible in the creation of CAMP, to enhance neurotransmission of the PREsyn cell–> causes vasodilation and increase blood flow.

72
Q

Role of opioid peptides

A

plays role in BP and HR regulation, pain regulation, aggression, sexual behavior, and euphoria.

73
Q

Can opioid peptides be packaged into vesicles?

A

Yes, unlike endocannabinoids that are not pacakaged into vesicles, the peptide vesicles can be packaged as long as they are cleaved from their super long polypeptide chains into their active form.

74
Q

Name two types of endogenous opioid type peptides

A

endorphins and enkephalins.

75
Q

what type of receptor responds to opioid peptides?

A

Metabotropic receptors- activates G proteins to regulate ion channels for potassium and calcium. Also activates G proteins that inhibit cell excitability (hence pain reduction)

76
Q

What enzyme breaks down opioid peptides?

A

peptidases.

77
Q

Describe PET scanning

A

radiolabelling a target substance or portion of the brain or drug by combining with a radioactive isotope. Radiation emitted by isotope can be detected and related back to activity of original substance or drug.

78
Q

Describe MRI scanning

A

uses a powerful magnet to induce a field strong enough to force alignment of hydrogen atoms in the body (Excitement). during relaxation phase, energy is released and quantified provided a high resolution image.

79
Q

fMRI scanning

A

similar to MRI except a magnetically responsive substance is administered which results disproportionate release of energy in areas that are highly active. Has poorer spatial resolution

80
Q

Name invasive techniques of brain study

A

1) electrophysiology: record currets from individual or groups of neurons
2) Microdialysis: sampling neurotransmitter levels from brain regions. Can quantify concentrations
3) Cyclic Voltammetry: better resolution than microdialysis, but can only assess relative difference, cannot quantify absolute amounts of neurotransmitter.

81
Q

Optogenetics

A

taking proteins that code for light sensitivity in algae and putting it in a neuron of interest in an animal. You are then able to fire that specific cell just with light because it now contains the light-activation gene.

82
Q

Resting potential value, firing potential?

A

-70mV, -55mV

83
Q

Once the firing threshold is reached, the gated ion channels allow ______ions to flow in. This is called the ____ phase

A

allows sodium into the cell, makes cell more positive. called rising phase.

84
Q

Where are the Na+ ion channels located?

A

at the node of ranvier, breaks in the myelin.

85
Q

What does it mean when action potentials are non decremental?

A

the action potential does not lose strength over time.

86
Q

T/F action potentials are conducted much more quickly along myelinated portions of the axon compared to unmyelinated

A

True SALTATORY

PSYC-2920 (15 decks)

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