Chapter 5 + 6 Flashcards
Consciousness
Awareness of oneself and the environment
Biological rhythms
A periodic, more or less regular fluctuation in a biological systems
-may or may not have psychological implications
EX: hunger, menstrual, sleep cycle
Entrainment
Biological rhythms are synchronized with external events such as changes in clock time temperature, and daylight
Circadian Rhythms
Occur about every 24 hours
Ex: the sleep-wake cycle
-occur in plants animals and people
-The brains biological clock
Infradian rhythms
occur less than once a day
Ex: birds migrating, bears hibernating
Ultradian rhythms
occur more frequently than once a day, about every 90 mins
Ex: stomach contraction, hormone levels
How would you study Circadian rhythms
isolate volunteers from time cues
Internal desynchronization
a state when biological rhythms are not in phase with one another
Why does internal desynchronization happen
Circadian rhythms are influence by changes in routine
-Illness, stress, fatigue, excitement, drugs, and mealtimes
How to help Jet lag
-Oral melatonin to rest circadian rhythm
-sunlight exposure
Reasons for Sleep
Exact functions uncertain, but it gives time for:
-the body to eliminate waste products from muscles
-repair cells
-strengthen the immune system
-recover abilities lost during the day
Beta Wave
Awake/Alert
REM Sleep
-Dreams are longer, more detailed, and more coherent than non-REM dreams
-Physiological arousal increases
-sleep paralysis
-May be involved in memory consolidation
-activated by surges of acetylcholine
Sleep Deprivation
leads to decreases in physical and mental functioning
-Mood
-Cognitive performance
-Physical performance
Short term sleep deprivation
up to 45 hours without sleep
Long term sleep deprivation
more than 45 hours with sleep
Partial deprivation
no more than 5 hours of sleep a night for 1 or more nights
Insomnia
-Chronic difficulty in falling asleep
sleep disorder
-waking up to early in the morning
-waking up during the night and having trouble falling back to sleep
Narcolepsy
Sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks
-REM sleep intrudes into waking state
-Cataplexy
sleep disorder
Cataplexy
Wakeful “REM sleep paralysis”
a complete loss of muscle tone
remain alert the whole time, even though you cant move
Sleep apnea
-Breathing stops and restarts during sleep
-caused by a blockage of the airways during sleep
-causes sleep deprivation because you continously wakeup in the night
Sleepwalking
Nerve messages causing REM sleep paralysis are ineffective
-NOT dangerous to wake them up (it takes time)
-people who are deprived of sleep are more likely to exhibit sleepwalking the following night
-almost always occurs in NREM
Nightmares
Bad dreams
Night terrors
Wake up screaming, full flight or fight response (high SNS arousal)
-Most common in stages 3 & 4
-no recollection of what occurred
Best treatment for night terrors
Wake child up before it typically occurs
Dreams are Unconscious wishes
-Dreams provide insight into our unconscious
-Freud
-To understand a dream we must distinguish between:
-manifest content
-Latent content
-Not everything is symbolic
Manifest Content
includes aspects of the dream we consciously experience
Latent content
-Includes unconscious wishes and thoughts symbolized in the dream
-distinction between what dreams seems to be about and what they were really about
Activation Synthesis theory
Dreams are a reflection of brain activation during sleep
1. Spontaneous firing of neurons in pons
2. Cerebral cortex synthesizes signals then tries to interpret them (I’m running through the woods)
Dreams are an effort to deal with problems
-reflet concerns over relationships, work, sex or health
-dreams are more likely to contain material to a persons concerns
Dreams as By-product of mental housekeeping
-Unnecessary neural connections in the brain are eliminated and important ones are strengthened
-Brains divide information into “wanted” and “unwanted”
-what we recall as a dream is only brief snippets from scanning and sorting that occurs during REM sleep
Altered states of consciousness
-Hallucinations
-Out of body experiences (OBE’s)
-Near death Experiences (NDE’s)
-Deja Vu
-Meditation
Exploring the dream world
-Dreams are unconscious wishes
-Dreams as efforts to deal with problems
-dreams as by-product of mental housekeeping
-dreams as thinking
-dreams as interpreted brain activity
Hallucinations
-Perceptual experiences in the absence of external stimuli
-Neural activity with no external source
-10 to 39% of people have experienced
-Imagination interpreted as real?
Out of Body Experiences (OBE’s)
-sense of your consciousness leaving your body
-floating above, observing
-25% post secondary students
-10% of people
-Stress and fantasy?
Astral projection
intentionally producing an out of body experience
Near death experiences
-Dark tunnel, bright light, experiences of heaven or hell, life review
-culturally influenced
- 6 to 33% of people who have been close to death
-May be created by oxygen deprivation, some drugs, electrical stimulation of the temporal lobe.
Deja Vu
-Experience of having “been there before”
-small seizures, dual processing theory (out of sync)
-Similar to past experiences, inattentiveness
-66% of people
Deja vu is more likely in people who:
-Remember their dreams
-post secondary education
-liberal political and religious views
-high income
Meditation
-Stress reduction, insight, spiritual growth
-breathe ,relax, observe, concentrate, negate
-ALPHA waves and blood flow to the brain
Meditation increases:
Creativity, empathy, alertness, self esteem
Meditation decreases
anxiety, depression, interpersonal problems
Hypnosis
A set of techniques that provides people with suggestions for alterations in their perception, thoughts, feelings and behaviors.
Myths of hypnosis
-Produces a trance states
-hypnotic phenomena are unique
-Is a sleep-like state
-people are unaware of their surroundings
-people forget what happened during
-improves memory
Hypnosis produces a trance state in which amazing things happen
The suggestibility of the subject is best predictor
Hypnotic phenomena are unique
Experiences many (pain tolerance, hallucinations) during normal consciousness
Hypnosis is a sleep-like state
-Brain wave pattern is not “sleep-like”
Hypnotized people are unaware of their surroundings
fully aware and show memory of surroundings
Hypnotized people forget what happened during hypnosis
-Spontaneous amnesia is rare
Hypnosis improves memory
-increases amount of information recalled, but NOT the accuracy of the details
-Increases subject confidence in memory
Theories of hypnosis
-Sociocognitive theories
-Dissociation theories
Sociocognitive theories
-Effects of hypnosis results from interactions between social influence of the hypnotist (socio) and the abilities, beliefs and expectations of the subject (cognitive)
-Explains “alien abductions” and “past-life regression”
Dissociation theories
-Hypnosis is a split in consciousness in which one part of the mind operates independently of the rest of the consciousness or
-During hypnosis, dissociation occurs between an executive control system in the brain (Probably frontal lobes) and other brain systems involved in thinking and acting
Drug Tolerance
Decreasing responsiveness to drugs
1. drugs change bodily functioning (e.g. increased heart rate)
2.Brain creates compensatory responses (neurons) (e.g. reactions that decrease heart rate)
3. Learning (classical conditioning), drug tolerance and overdose
Psychoactive drug
-Contains chemicals similar to neurotransmitters
-Capable of influencing perception, mood, cognition, or behavior
Types of drugs (4)
-Stimulants
-Depressants
-Opiates
-Psychedelic drugs
Drug - Stimulants
-Speed up activity in the CNS
-Cause elation, excitement, increased alertness, increased energy and lower fatigue
-Increase in blood pressure and heart rate, irritability, anxiety, paranoia, and aggressiveness. Decrease appetite
-Treatment of hyperactivity and narcolepsy
-Tobacco, cocaine, and amphetamines
Drugs - Depressants
-slow down activity in the CNS
-Euphoria and relaxation anxiety reduction
-effects include lethargy, nausea, drowsiness, emotional swings
-Alcohol, Barbiturates, non-barbiturates, benzodiazepines
Drugs - Opiates
-Relieve Pain
-Euphoria and relaxation, diminishes with use
-Effects of lethargy, nausea, drowsiness, constipation
-Abdominal cramps, vomiting, running nose, sweats chills
-Morphine, Heroin
Psychedelic drugs
-disrupts normal thought process
-No medical Use (other than marijuana)
-Distort or intensify sensory experience
-causes euphoria, altered perception and hallucinations
-dilated pupils, paranoia, jumbled thoughts, anxiety, panic and nausea
-Marijuana, LSD, Mescaline, Psilocybin
Alcohol
-depressant
-most used and abused drug
-Depresses inhibition of emotion and behavior
-expectation and social setting impact social BEHAVIOUR
-Impacts physical responses like reaction time
Tobacco/Nicotine
-Stimulant
-Activates Acetylcholine receptors
-Adjustment value
-Enhances positive emotions while decreasing negative emotions
Cocaine
-Stimulant
-Euphoria, enhanced mental and physical capacities, decreased hunger, fatigue and pain
-high addictive
-Increases activity of dopamine (and serotonin)
How cocaine effects the brain
Blocks the brains reabsorption (reuptake) of the dopamine
-results in overstimulation of certain brain circuits and a bried euphoric high
-When drug wears off, depletion of dopamine may cause user to “crash”
Occasional small dose of Amphetamines
-Stimulant
-Mood elevation, postpone fatigue
Regular abuse of Amphetamines
-Stimulant
-Psychological dependence; depression
Injections of Amphetamines
-Stimulant
-Restless, talkative, excited, unable to sleep, suspicious, hostile, paranoid delusions
-Exhaustion, severe depression
Marijuana
-Psychedelic
-Causes euphoria, altered perception (time slowing down, touch sensitivity), sens pf well being, giggling laughter
-Exaggerates emotions, depersonalization, anxiety, panic and psychotic episodes
-Cannabinoid receptors
-Pleasure perception, memory, coordination (limbic system, basal ganglia, cerebellum)
Marijuana use is correlated to:
-Lower achievement
-Legal troubles
-Respiratory disease
-Increased rick of schizophrenia
LSD
-Psychedelic
-synthesized from fungi
-interferes with serotonin
-Intense visual hallucinations, synesthesia, mystical experiences
-Pain, paranoid delusions, confusion, depression
-Flashbacks
Habituation
A decrease in strength of response to a repeated stimulus
-Helps organisms to prevent being overwhelmed and exhausted by not responding to non-important stimuli
-screaming mid class
Classical conditioning
-Pavlovian condition
-Respondent conditioning
-unconscious leaning
UCS: Unconditioned stimulus
stimulus that naturally elicits a particular response
-EX: dogs food
-what Naturally happens
UCR: unconditioned response
Response that is naturally elicited by the UCS
-EX: Dog salivating
-what naturally happens
NS: Neutral stimulus
Stimulus that elicits no particular response
-EX: A bell
CS: Conditioned Stimulus
-Originally neutral stimulus that has been conditioned by pairing it with the UCS
-Ex: Ringing bell every time you give the dog food
CR: conditioned response
Learned response that is now elicited by the CS because of pairing
-EX: Salivation when the dog hears the bell
Acquisition
stage where the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and conditioned stimulus (CS) are paired repeatedly
Delay pairing
CS appears first and is still on when the UCS appears
-Learning occurs most quickly
Trace pairing
CS appears, goes off, and UCS appears
Extinction occurs when:
The Conditioned stimulus is repeatedly present without the unconditioned stimulus
-Occurs when a response is no longer reinforced
-loss of motivation
Stimulus Generalization
Animal responds to stimuli that are similar to the original Conditioned stimulus
Stimulus discrimination
Animal can detect differences between similar stimuli
Latent inhibition
Well known neutral stimulus is resistant to conditioning
Aversive conditioning
-Avoidance response is conditioned through paring with an aversive stimulus
-stop smoking
-Antabuse
Classical conditioning: application
-Phobia creation
-Drug tolerance
-Fetishes
-Phobia treatment
-advertising
Phobia creation
Conditioned stimulus (E.g. Snakes) is paired with a Uncontrolled stimulus (E.g. Bite) in one-trial learning, creating a fear of snake
Phobia treatment
Systematic Desensitization
-relaxation training
-hierarchy of fears
Flooding
-Throwing them in a room of snakes
Thorndike’s Law of effect
If a response, in the presence of a stimulus , is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the bond between the stimulus and response will be strengthened
Operant condition
-Positive: + adding something
-Negative: - Taking away something
-Reinforcement: Behavior increases
-Punishment: behavior decreases
Positive reinforcement
Response is strengthened by adding a pleasant stimulus
giving candy each time you ask a question
Negative reinforcement
A response is strengthened by removal or avoidance of a stimulus
-taking away annoying sound each time we ask a question would lead to us asking questions more
positive punishment-Aversive punishment
a response is weakened by the presence of an unpleasant stimulus (e.g. scolding a child)
-hitting someone
negative punishment-Response cost
A response is weakened by the removal of a pleasant stimulus (e.g. TV privileges removed)
Primary Reinforcers
something that is desirable, stimuli that satisfy biological needs
(e.g. food, water, sex)
Secondary reinforcers
Stimuli that have an association with the primary reinforcer so they become desirable
(good boy and a treat to just good boy)
Shaping
-reward the successive approximations towards the goal
-rewarding something that is broadly what we want and then slowly reward more approximate things
Discriminative stimulus
Signals the availability of reinforcement
Partial reinforcement
-giving reinforcement only some of the time
-Increases resistance to extinction
Schedules of reinforcement - Ratio
Based on on behavior
-number of responses
-fixed ration
-Variable ratio
Fixed ration
after certain number of responses
Variable ratio
changing the number of times they have to do
Schedules of reinforcement - Interval
-Based on time
-First response after some amount of time
-Fixed interval
-Variable interval
Fixed interval
after specified period of time ex 2 minutes
Variable interval
after different amounts of time
Fixed schedules vs variable schedules
variable is the most resistant to extinction because they don’t have specific pattern so they wont notice that they haven’t gotten the reward in a while
Successive approximation
In the operant-conditioning procedures of shaping behaviors that are ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the desired response
Chaining
linking behavior to form longer, more complex activities
-start at the end fluffing the pillow after clean the whole room they they get a reward, then they have to do a little more each time
-EX: dog shows
Premack principal (grandma’s rule)
reinforcement less frequent behaviors with more frequent behaviors
-reward less desirable with more desired
-go play with your friends after your room is clean
-play COS After you study
Superstitious behavior
behavior linked to reinforcement by sheer coincidence
-accidentally reinforced behaviors
Token economies
Using secondary reinforcement
-Gold stars
-poker chips
-given a token and then you can use the token to get a reward
Escape conditioning
Escape behaviors are acquired and maintained through negative reinforcement
-feels the shock then leaves the electric floor
Avoidance conditioning
The organism learns a response to avoid and aversive stimulus
-warning light
-learns that the light means the electricity is about to come on
Learned Helplessness
the organism learns no response can avoid the aversive stimulus
-only option is to be shocked
-one explanation for depression
Phobias
-Develop through classical conditioning
-Strengthened and maintained through operant conditioning
Parent infant attachment
-Classical
-positive reinforcement
-negative reinforcement
Insight
-Apes were able to figure out how to use tools to reach bananas without previous learning
-Apes elephant, crows and ravens
Cognitive Maps
-Tolman argued that rats developed a mental representation of a maze. learning provide knowledge and expectancy
-Latent learning
Observational learning
-Learning occurs by observing behavior of a model
-seeing someone get their mouth washed out from soap
Modeling helps learn
-which event are important
-which stimuli signal events
-which response produces positive or negative consequences
Modeling Key processes (4)
-Attention
-Retention
-Reproduction
-Motivation
Attentions - modelling
-you have to have seen what happens to learn from it
you must pay attention to behavior and consequences
Retention - modelling
-you have to remember what you have to do to get the reward
you must have memory for what you witnessed
Reproduction - Modeling
you must be able to reproduce the response from your memory
Motivation - Modeling
you need to be motivated to reproduce the behavior due to some form of payoff
Belongingness
-certain behaviors are more easily conditioning to certain stimuli
-sex and visual
-eating and taste
Preparedness
-fearfulness to specific stimuli
-Evolutionary predisposition to connect fearfulness to specific stimuli (threats)
-Survival value
-“natural threats”
-snake vs bunny
Instinctive drift
Tendency for animal to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement
- a conditioned response “drift back” toward instinctive behavior
-Biology places constraints on learning
Sleep paralysis
experience of being unable to move just before falling asleep or immediately upon awakening
-Caused by a disruption in the sleep cycle
Incubus phenomenon
when a sleeping person feels awake yet hallucinates a human, animal, or other being that sit or lies on the thorax, aggression to the point of fear of life
Stage 1 sleep
last about 5-10 minutes
produces theta waves
Hypnagogic imagery
scrambled, bizarre, and dream-like images that flit in and out of consciousness
Sleep spindles
sudden intense burst of electrical activity
K-Complexes
sharply rising and falling waves
Lucid dream
-Dreaming and knowing you are dreaming
-cerebral cortex associated with self-perception becomes active
Rebound insomnia
longstanding use of sleeping pill creating dependency and when you stop taking it you have a hard time falling asleep
Orexin
hormone which plays a key role in triggering sudden attack of sleepiness
Neurocognitive theory
dreams are often ordinary, relate to waking concerns, show some capacities, and can be very realistic
-dreams as a simulation
-complex cognitive achievements that develop as our visual imagination and other advance cognitive abilities develop
Dream continuity hypothesis
Dreams mirror our life circumstances
continuous reinforcement
-reinforcing every time they do it
-prone to extinction
Latent learning
learn something without effort, then giving them a reward
subconscious retention of information without reinforcement or motivation
conditioned taste aversion
-eaten something then got sick and you don’t eat it again
-very specific learning
Equipotentiality
-all stimuli have equal potential for learning
-conditioned taste aversion proves this wrong
