Chapter 3 + 4 Flashcards
1
Q
Structure of a Neuron
A
-Dendrites
-Cell Body (Soma)
-Axon
-Synapse
2
Q
Dendrites
A
Receives information from other neurons and transmits towards the cell body
3
Q
Cell Body (Soma)
A
Keeps neuron alive and determines whether it will fire
4
Q
Axon
A
Extending fiber that conducts impulses away from the cell body and transmits to other cells
5
Q
Parts of the Synapse
A
- Synaptic cleft
-Axon Terminals
-Synaptic vesicles
6
Q
The 3 types of neurons
A
-Sensory
-Motor
-interneurons
7
Q
Sensory neurons
A
Carry input messages from the sense organs to the spinal cord and brain
8
Q
Motor neurons
A
Transmit impulses from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and organs
9
Q
Interneurons
A
Perform connective or associative functions in the nervous system
10
Q
Glial Cells
A
-Surrounds neurons and hold them in place
-Manufacture nutrient chemicals neurons need
-Absorb toxins and waste materials
-Facilitates communication
-enhances memory and learning
11
Q
Glial cells - Astrocyte
A
Neural communication, improved thought and memory
12
Q
Glial Cells - Oligodendrocyte
A
-Neurogenesis
-myelin sheath
13
Q
Action potential
A
If a neuron reaches threshold, an AP is triggered
-usually around -55mV
-Triggered by stimulus or neurotransmitters
-ALL OR NONE: They do not partially fire
14
Q
During AP what happens?
A
Positive ions flood into the axon, triggering a wave or positive charge down the axon
-Reaches a charge of +40mV
15
Q
What happens during the absolute refractory period?
A
Neurons will not fire
16
Q
what do excitatory do?
A
increase the charge
17
Q
what do Inhibitory do?
A
decrease the charge
18
Q
Myelin sheath
A
-Insulation layer covers axons in the brain and spinal cord
-Allows for high-speed conduction
19
Q
Neurotransmitter
A
Chemical substance released by a transmitting neurons at the synapse and capable of affecting the activity of a receiving neuron
20
Q
Breakdown - Deactivation of neurotransmitters
A
Other chemicals in the synapse break down neuro-transmitters into their chemical components
21
Q
Reuptake - Deactivation of neurotransmitters
A
Neurotransmitters are taken back into the presynaptic axon terminal
22
Q
Glutamate
A
-Main excitatory
-relay of sensory input and learning
memory, cognition, and mood regulation
23
Q
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
A
Main inhibitory neurotransmitter
24
Q
Acetylcholine
A
-Muscle contraction (PNS)
-Cortical arousal, selective attention and memory (CNS)
25
Monoamine neurotransmitters
-Norepinephrine
-Dopamine
-Serotonin
26
Norepinephrine
Cortical arousal
27
Dopamine
Motor function and reward
28
Serotonin
-Mood regulation
-Circadian rhythms
-aggression
29
Endorphins
-Neuropeptide
-Reduction of pain sensation
-Opiates
30
Anandamide
-Pain reduction
-Appetite arousal
-Motivation memory sleep
31
Melatonin
-Hormone
-Regulates daily biological rhythms
32
Adrenal Hormones
-Involved in emotions and stress
- Cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine
33
Sex Hormones
regulates development and functioning of reproductive organs
-Androgens, estrogens and progesterone
34
Endocrine glands
Release hormones into the bloodstream
35
Central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord
36
Peripheral Nervous system
connects the CNS with the muscles, glands, and sensory receptors
37
Somatic nervous system
-Peripheral nervous system
-Consists of sensory and motor neurons the bind together to create nerves to transmit messages to sensory receptors
38
Autonomic nervous system:
-Peripheral nervous system
-Controls glands and smooth muscles in bodily organs
-Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
39
Sympathetic nervous system
Arouses the body
40
Parasympathetic nervous system
Slows down body processes
41
The Cerebral cortex
-In charge of most sensory, motor and cognitive processes
-Upper (outer) part of the brain divided into two cerebral hemispheres
42
Corpus callosum
Connects the two cerebral hemispheres in the brain
-millions of myelinated axons connecting the brains hemispheres
-provides a pathway for communication between hemispheres
-if surgically severed to treat epilepsy, hemispheres cannot communicate directly
43
Frontal lobe
-Executive functions, motor, language production, memory
44
motor cortex
Controls voluntary muscular movements
- In the frontal lobe
45
Broca's Area
Involved in speech production
-in the frontal lobe
46
Parietal lobe
Physical perception - Touch, pain, temperature, taste
-Spatial perception
-Body perception
-Sensory-motor integration
-shifting attention
-number concepts
47
Somatosensory cortex
Receives sensory input for heat, touch, cold, balance and body ,movement
- In the parietal lobe
48
Occipital Lobe
Sight-Processing visual information
49
Temporal lobe
-Hearing - understanding language
-Autobiographical memory and integration of sensory information
50
Wernicke's Area
involved in speech comprehension
- In the temporal lobe
51
Basal Ganglia
- 2 sets of structures
- Aid in movement control
- Create a motor action plan and communicate this to the motor cortex
52
Thalamus
Routes sensory information to higher brain structures
53
Limbic system
-Thalamus
-Includes all sensory messages except those from olfactory bulb
-Hypothalamus
54
Hypothalamus
-Major role in motivation and emotions
-connects with the endocrine system
-involved in pain/pleasure
55
Hypothalamus and pituitary gland
-Involved in emotions and drives vital to survival
- Fear, hunger thirst and reproduction
-Regulates autonomic nervous system
56
Pituitary gland
small endocrine gland which releases hormones and regulates other endocrine glands
57
Amygdala
Organizes emotional responses
58
what is Amygdala responsible for
-Arousal
-regulation of emotion
-the initial emotional response to sensory information
59
Amygdala plays an important role in
-Fear and fear recognition
-mediating anxiety and depression
-emotional memory
60
Cingulate cortex
-The limbic system
-Active during emotional expression
-contributes to social behavior
-Damage results in lack of empathy
61
Hippocampus
-The limbic system
-involved in forming memories
-spatial memories and navigation
-Plays a role in trauma (the integration of emotional significant and fearful memories)
62
What is the hippocampus responsible for?
-Storage of new information in memory
-comparing sensory information with what the brain expects about the world
-enabling us to form spatial memories for navigating the environment
63
Cerebellum
Concerned with muscular movement, learning and memory
-regulates movement and balance
-involved in remembering simple skills and acquired reflexes
64
Cerebellum plays a part in
-analyzing sensory information
-solving problems
-understanding words
65
The midbrain
Reticular activating system
- Involved in brain arousal, sleep, and attention
66
Ascending - Reticular activating system
sends information to and alerts higher brain regions
67
Descending - Reticular activating system
Higher brain centers can admit or block sensory input
68
Medulla
-Plays role in vital body functions such as heart rate and breathing
-brain death
69
Pons
Carries nerve impulses from cortex to cerebellum and other lower parts of nervous system
70
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
A recording of neural activity detected by electrodes
71
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
-Active areas have increased blood flow
-sensors detect radioactivity
-different tasks show distinct activity patterns
72
Chromosomes
rod-shaped structures within cells that carry genes
73
Genes
Functional units of heredity which are composed of DNA and specify the structure of proteins
74
Genotype
-Genetic makeup of an individual
- XX or XY
75
Phenotype
-Observable characteristics produced by genes
-Female or male
76
Dominant genes
if a person receives a dominant gene, he or she will display the characteristic the gene controls
77
Recessive genes
if the gene is recessive the characteristic will not be displayed unless its partner gene inherited from the other parent is also recessive
78
Adaption - Genetic
physical factors that results in increased ability to survive and breed
-shell, opposable thumb, long neck, physical attractiveness
79
Behavioral - Adaption
behaviors that result in increased ability to survive and breed
- Aggression, sociability
80
Heritability
-degree to which genes contribute to trait differences among individuals
- Expressed as a %
81
Heritability misunderstood
Heritability does NOT apply to individuals
-Differences among individuals
- Heights has heritability of 70 or 80 %, Your height does not
Traits with high heritability DO change
-Plants
82
Sensation
-The detection of physical energy emitted or reflected by physical objects
-it occurs when energy in the external environment or the body stimulates receptors in the sense organs
83
Perception
The process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information
84
Attention - Perception
-focusing on certain stimuli
-filtering out other information
85
Stimulus factors in attention
-Intensity
-Novelty
-repetition
-Contrast
-movement
86
Personal factors in attention
-Motives
-interests
87
Psychological and cultural influences on perception
-we are more likely to perceive something when we need it
-what we believe can affect what we perceive
- Emotions, such as fear can influence perception of sensory information
-Expectation based on our previous experiences influence how we perceive the world
-All are influenced by our culture
88
Perceptual set
What you see originally you'll continue to see
EX: face vs woman (center image)
89
Sensory Adaptation
-The reduction of disappearance of sensory responsiveness when stimulation is unchanging or repetitious
-prevent us from having to continuously respond to unimportant information
90
Sensory deprivation
The absence of normal levels of sensory stimulation
91
Sensory overload
-Overstimulation of the sense
-can use selective attention to reduce sensory overload
92
Sclera
whites of the eye
93
Cornea
-protects eye and bends light towards lens
94
Lens
focuses on objects by changing shape
95
Iris
Controls amount of light that gets into the eye
96
Pupil
Widens or dilates to let in more light
97
Retina
-neural tissue at back of eye
-site or transduction
-rods and cones
98
Fovea
-Center of focus
-most cones
99
Blind spots
-Optic nerve leaves
-no rods or cones
100
Rods
Visual receptors that respond to dim light
-Black and white receptors
-more located on edge of retina
-sensitive to dim light
-less detail
101
Cones
Visual receptors involved in color vision
-color receptors
-located in Fovea
-More detailed
102
Transduction - vision
Absorption of light by photopigments produces a chemical reaction changing the rate of neurotransmitter release at the receptors synapse
-The greater the change in release, the stronger the signal passed into the optic nerve
103
Dark adaption
Photopigment molecules are regenerated increasing receptor sensitivity
-cones reach maximum sensitivity in 5 mins, rods take 30 mins
104
Trichromatic theory
-how we see color theory
-The eye detects 3 primary colors
-All other colors can be derived by combining these three
105
Opponent-process theory
-how we see color theory
-The visual system treats pairs of colors as opposing or antagonistic
-cells are inhibited by a color, and have a burst of activity when it is removed
106
Constructing the visual world
-Form perception
-depth and distance perception
-visual constancies
-visual illusions
107
visual constancies
-when seeing is believing
-The accurate perception of objects as stable or unchanged despite changes in the sensory patterns they produce
-shape constancy
-location constancy
-size constancy
-brightness constancy
-color constancy
108
Visual illusions
when seeing is misleading
109
Gestalt principle
-form perception
-describes the brains organization of sensory building blocks into meaningful units and patterns
-Proximity
-similarity
-closure (subjective contours)
-common movement
-figure ground relations
-continuity
110
Binocular cues
-Visual cues to depth or distance that require the use of both eyes
-convergence
-Retinal disparity
111
Convergence
-Binocular cue
Turning inward of the eyes, which occurs when they focus on a nearby object
112
Retinal Disparity
-Binocular cues
the slight difference in lateral separation between two objects as seen by the left eye and right eye
113
Monocular Cues
Visual cues to depth or distance that can be used by one eye alone
114
Color context
-the way you perceive a color depends on the color that surrounds it
115
Pitch
The dimension of auditory experience related to the frequency of a pressure wave
-the slower the wave the lower the pitch
-20Hz to 20 000 Hz is audible
116
Loudness
-the dimension of auditory experience related to the intensity of a pressure wave
-50 dB comfortable - normal conversation
-90 dB starts to do permanent effect on hearing
117
Timbre (TAM-bur)
the distinguishing quality of sound; the dimension auditory experience related to the complexity of the pressure wave
118
Outer Ear
-funnels sound
-Pinna
-Ear canal
-tympanic membrane
119
Middle ear
transmit sound
-ossicles
-hammer - anvil - stirrup
120
Inner ear
Converts vibration to neural signal
-cochlea
-basilar membrane
-organ of corti
-hair cells
121
Pitch perception
different tones excite different areas of the basilar membrane and primary auditory cortex
-high tones - place theory
-low tones -frequency theory, volley theory
122
Auditory localization
-sounds from different directions are not identical as they arrive at left and right ears
-loudness
-timing
-phase
-the brain calculates a sounds location by using these differences
123
Papillae
Knoblike elevations on the tongue, containing the taste buds
(singular: papilla)
124
Taste buds
nest of taste-receptors cells
125
What are the 5 basic tastes
salty
sour
bitter
sweet
umami (meaty)
126
reasons for different taste in different people
-genetics
-culture
-learning
-food attractiveness
127
smell
airborne chemical molecules enter the nose and circulate through the nasal cavity
- vapors can also enter through the mouth and pass into nasal cavity
-receptors on the roof of the nasal cavity detect the molecules
128
Pheromones
odorless chemicals that serve a social signal to members of one species
129
taste and smell - emotions
facial expressions when eating etc
130
Touch
specialized nerve endings
-identify specific sensation
-mechanoreceptors
-light touch
-deep pressure
-Identify several sensation
-pain
-touch
-temperature
131
kinesthesis
the sense of body position and movement of body parts
132
Equilibrium
The sense of balance
133
Proprioceptors
-muscle sketch receptors
-tendon force detectors
-info travels to somatosensory and motor cortices
134
Semicircular canal (inner ear)
-3 fluid-filled canals responsible for our sense of balance
-Otoliths
-info travels to brain stem and cerebellum
135
Otoliths
tiny crystals sense linear movement and gravity
