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Clinical Psychology > Chapter 4: Research: Design and Outcome > Flashcards

Chapter 4: Research: Design and Outcome Flashcards

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1
Q

Basic and Applied Research

A

Provides many of the clues to important questions about diagnosis, treatment, and general uman behavior, thus allowing practitioners to implement their techniques and theories with confidence

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2
Q

Goal of Research in Clinical Psychology

A

To acquire knowledge about human behavior and to use this knowledge to help improve the lives of individuals, families, and groups

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3
Q

Scientific Method

A

Used by clinical psychologists in conducting research activities; set of rules and procedures that describe, explain, and predict a particular phenomenon; includes the obseration of a phenomenon, the development of hypotheses about the phenomenon, the empirical testing of the hypotheses, and the alteration of hypotheses to accommodate the new data collected and interpreted

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4
Q

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fourth Edition

A

Research tool to objectively describe a given phenomenon; describes clinical syndromes and lists highly specific dignostic criteria for each psychiatric problem thus enabling researchers to better ensure that the same criteria are used to describe each population studied

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5
Q

Diagnostic Criteria

A

Describes the thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with a particular clinical syndrome

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6
Q

Independent Variable

A

Manipulated by the researcher and provides the structure for the study; Treatment condition;

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7
Q

Dependent Variable

A

Variable that is expected to change as a result of the influence of the independent variable; what is measured by the researcher to determine whether the hypothesis can be supported or not

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8
Q

Research Studies

A

Evaluate the influence of the independent/ variable(s) on the dependent measure (s); the study must be constructed such that all other factors that might influence the dependent variable are controlled, with the exception of the independent variable

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9
Q

Experimental Error

A

Occurs when changes in the dependent variable are due to factors other than the influence of the independent variable

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10
Q

Experimenter Expectancy Effects

A

When the experiementer might behave differently towards subjects in one condition

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11
Q

Reliability

A

Stability or consistency of a measurement procedure

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12
Q

Validity

A

The notion that an instrument should measure what is designed to measure

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13
Q

Threat to the Experiment’s Internal Validity

A

Any potential extraneous influences on the dependent variable (other than theinfluence of the independent variable)

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14
Q

Extraneous Variables

A

Variables that may threaten the internal validity of any research study include the effects of history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, statistical regression, selection bias, and experimental mortality

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15
Q

History

A

Refers to events outside the experimental situation (earthquakes, death of a loved one, marriage) that could have a significant impact on the results of the study

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16
Q

Maturation

A

Refers to changes within subjects over the passage of time (aging, becoming fatigued, bored, or stronger) that may influence the experimental results

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17
Q

Testing

A

Concerns the influence of the testing or evaluation process itself on research results such as in the use of repeated measures obtained on the same subjects over time

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18
Q

Instrumentation

A

Refers to the influences of the tests and measurement devices used to measure constructs in the study

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19
Q

Statistical Regression

A

Concerns the tendency of extreme scores on a measure to move toward the mean over time

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20
Q

Selection Bias

A

Refers to a differential and problematic selection procedure for choosing research subjects

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21
Q

Experimental Mortality

A

Refers to attrition or subject drop out in an experiment

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22
Q

External Validity

A

Refers to the generalizability of of the research results; the more similar the research experiment is to a real world situation, the more generalizable the findings

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23
Q

High Degree of Control and Precision

A

Necessary to minimize experimental and random error and thus maximize internal validity

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24
Q

Carefully Constructed Laboratory-Based Research

A

Should not maximize internal validity because it may jeopardize the generalizability of the results

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25
Q

Threats to External Validity

A

Testing
Reactivity
Multiple-Treatment Interference
Interaction of Selection Biases

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26
Q

Testing

A

Refers to the use of a questionnaire or other assessment device that may sensitize and alter the subject’s response and therefore influence the dependent measure

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27
Q

Reactivity

A

Concerns the subject’s potential response to participating in an experiment; subject may behave differently in an experiment than in the natural environment

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28
Q

Multiple-Treatment Interference

A

Refers to exposing a subject to several treatment conditions or factors such that the experimenter cannot isolate any specific condition or factor

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29
Q

Interaction of Selection Biases

A

Concerns the notion that subjects in one group may have been differentially responsive to the experimental condition in some unique manner

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30
Q

Experimental Design

A

The right one with the right research question and with internal and external validity maximized is the trick

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31
Q

True Experiments

A

Those that use randomization procedures with experimental and control conditions must be conducted, and all efforts made to minimize and control potential error and bias as well as to maximize both internal and external validity

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32
Q

Randomization

A

Procedure where research subjects are selected in a way that they all have an equal chance of being placed in the different experimental and control groups

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33
Q

Challenges Associated With Studies

A

Impossible or unethical to randomly assign human beings to certain experimental or control conditions
Impossible or unethical to assign patients to a control condition in which they do not receive treatment
Certain disorders are fairly rare, making it difficult to obtain enough subjects for various experimental and control conditions
Because many patients experiencing psychological distress have several diagnoses, comorbidity is likely to be the rule than the exception

34
Q

Quasi-Experimental Design

A

Chosen when random assignment to experimental and control conditions is not possible because of ethical or other limitations; Limitations require caution in the interpretation of research findings and direct cause-and-effect relationships cannot be inferred

35
Q

Between Group Designs

A

Use two or more separate groups of subjects, each of which receives a different type of intervention or, in the case of a control condition, no intervention; therefore, the independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter so that different groups of subjects receive different types of experiences

36
Q

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

A

Includes two or more subject groups; while one group receives treatment, the other does not; subjects are evaluated before and after treatment on the dimension of interest

37
Q

Disadvantage of Pretest-Posttest Approach

A

Administration of a pretest might sensitize subjects or influence their response to treatment
Posttest only-control could be added for prertest sensitivity

38
Q

Factorial Design

A

Between group design; provides an opportunity to study two or more factors in a given study; experimenter can examine the role of interactions between factors

39
Q

Within Groups Design

A

Used to examine the influence of the independent variable (such as treatment) on the same subjects over time.

40
Q

Ordering Effects

A

Refers to the influence of the order in which treatment or experimental conditions are presented to the subjects

40
Q

Crossover Design

A

Experimental or treatment condition switches or crosses over during the course of the experiment; two or more groups receive the same treatments; only the order of presentation is altered for each group; counterbalances the treatments so that order of presentation is controlled

40
Q

Multiple-Treatment Counterbalanced Designs

A

Three or more treatments for an experimental design

40
Q

Mixed Group Designs

A

Include elements of both between and within group designs; experiments are constructed in such a way that different groups of subjects receive different treatment or experimental experiences (between group) while subject responses are assessed over time at different phases of experiment (within group)

40
Q

Analogue Designs

A

Use procedures, subjects, and measures that approximate a real-life clinical situation and are usually conducted in a laboratory where experimental conditions can be controlled better than in the natural environment

40
Q

Case Study

A

In-depth investigation, observation, description of a single person or situation; primary technique used by Freud; not experiments because they lack dependent variables, and randomized assignment of subjects into treatment and control conditions; provide an intensive observation of a person and phenomenon that allows for the development of hypotheses and theories; Useful for examining a new, rare, or unusual phenomenon or during the early descriptive stages of a research program

41
Q

Single-Subject Designs

A

Blend case study and experimental techniques; offer the scientific rigor of experimental methods, they also allow for practical clinical relevance because they are used with only one patient or case; Use methods to both study and treat individual patients in their practice

42
Q

ABAB Design/Intrasubject Replication Design

A

Commonly used single-subject design; alternating between baseline (or no treatment) phases during a single subject intervention for a particular problem; both a single subject design and a within subjects design

43
Q

ABAB Design

A

Initial Baseline Period (A)
Treatment Intervention (B)
Return to No Treatment (A)
Second Treatment Intervention (B)

49
Q

Multiple Baseline Design

A

Baseline data are collected for all the behaviors of interest; treatment is provided for one target behavior while baseline data are still collected on the other behaviors. Treatment intervention might then target a second behavior while continuing or removing treatment for the first behavior

50
Q

Sin Qua Non of Experimental Research

A

Random assignment-experimental and control conditions

51
Q

Correlational Designs

A

Examine the degree of association between two or more variables; do not allow cause-and-effect conclusions; provide researchers and clinicians useful information concerning the degree of associations between constructs of interest

52
Q

Correlations

A

Can be positive or negative

53
Q

Positive Correlation

A

Refers to two or more variables that move in the same direction; as one variable increases, so does the other

54
Q

Negative Correlation

A

Refers to two or more variables that move in opposite directions; as one variable increases, the other decreases

55
Q

Correlation Coefficient

A

Expression of the degree of association between variables; score ranging from -1.00 to +1.00; scores close to -1.00 reflect a nearly perfect negative correlation (while one variable is high, the other is low); scores close to +1.00 reflect a nearly positive correlation (while one variable is high, the other is also high)

56
Q

No Correlation

A

The correlation is close to zero

57
Q

Epidemiology

A

Refers to the examination of theincidence or distribution of a particular clinical problem or variable of interest

58
Q

Epidemiological Research

A

Describes the prevalence and incidence of a particular issue of concern; attempt to accurately estimate the number of people who experience certain problems, tries to provide detailed information concerning other demographic characteristics of interest

59
Q

Epidemiological Data

A

May be collected from a variety of sources such as government census, survey approaches, national polls, and hospital records;generalized from large scale multisite research projects and other sources of information usually outside of the controlled laboratory experiments

60
Q

Cross Sectional Designs

A

Provide a snapshot view of behavior at a given moment in time; generally easier and less expensive to complete;

61
Q

Longitudinal Designs

A

Generally collect research data over a long period of time

62
Q

Treatment Outcome Research Strategies For Effectively Evaluating Treatment Outcome Research

A 
Treatment Package Strategy
Dismantling Treatment Strategy
Constructive Treatment Strategy
Parametric Treatment Strategy
Client and Therapist Variation Strategy
Process Research Strategy
63
Q

Treatment Package Strategy

A

Attempts to answer the basic question, “Does treatment work?” Seeks to determine whether a specific treatment is effective for a specific clinical problem or disorder; A treatment package is usually employed while a control condition such as a no-treatment control or a wait-list control group is used for comparison

64
Q

Package

A

Refers to the fact that most treatment approaches include a variety of potentially helpful components

65
Q

Pseudotreatment

A

Might involve many aspects of a real treatment but would not involve what the researchers believe are the active ingredients of treatment

66
Q

Dismantling Treatment Strategies

A

Which aspect of the treatment works? To identify the active ingredient of a particular treatment strategy after the treatment has been determined effective; to conduct one, different patients or groups of patients receive different aspects of a given treatment; seeks to determine the basis for change during treatment

67
Q

Constructive Treatment Strategies

A

What might be added to an effective treatment to make it even more effective? Adds various components to the treatment to determine whether the additions will improve the treatment outcome; allows the researcher to empirically construct a treatment package by adding new components piece by piece

68
Q

Parametric Treatment Strategy

A

What aspects of treatment can be altered to make treatment work better? Changes a specific aspect of the treatment to determine whether the change can enhance treatment effectiveness; involves altering the treatment time or intensity; might include a agroup of patients receiving standard treatment while another group receives longer and more intense treatment

69
Q

Comparative Treatment Strategy

A

Which treatment approach works better? Compares different strategies for producing change in a clinical problem

70
Q

Client-Therapist Variation Strategy

A

With which type of therapist or for which type of patient is treatment most likely to be effective? Alters the types of therapists or patients to determine which combinations optimize treatment outcome (therapist has had disorder, patient is highly motivated)

71
Q

Process Research Strategy

A

How does the actual process of therapy impact treatment outcome? Seeks to determine which aspects of the psychotherapeutic process are associated with positive treatment outcome; what makes a satisfying and productive session between a therapist and a patient?

72
Q

Statistical Significance

A

Refers to the very small probability of obtaining a particular finding by error or chance; convention is that if there is less than a 5 in 100 times chance that the means of two grops come from the same population, then the null hypothesis (no difference) is rejected and the hypothesis of the study is supported; referred to as p<.05

73
Q

p<0.05

A

The probability of error is less than 5%;

74
Q

Effect Size

A

Reflects the strength or degree of impact a given result or effect has on the results of the study

75
Q

Reliable Change Index

A

Method to mathematically defined clinical significance; calculates the number of clients or patients who have moved from a dysfunctional to a more functional level of experience; measures the difference between post and pretreatment scores and then divides by the standard error of measurement; examines the degree of change and the realiability of the measure to estimate the significance of the change in functioning; valuable tool when used with good measurements

76
Q

Meta-analysis

A

Statistical method for examining the results of a large number of research studies; useful in consolidating overall results across studies

77
Q

Research Program

A

Starts with uncontrolled case studies and then lead from single case study designs to between group designs with a small number of patients over a short period of time, followed by between group designs with a large number of patients over a long period of time

78
Q

Empritically Supported Treatments

A

Well established treatment approaches that have received significant research support demonstrating their efficacy

79
Q

Criteria for Acceptance as Empirically Supported Treatments

A

Include demonstration of efficacy using well-designed between group and/or a large series of single case design experiments; Results from these experiments must have demonstrated treatment superiority to placebo or other treatments as well as having used enough subjects to have adequate statistical power; the experiments must be conducting using treatment manuals and the characteristics of the clients must be very clearly specified; effects must be found by at least two independent researchers or research teams

80
Q

Collaborative Multisite Research Projects

A

Used frequently in medicine to investigate the effectiveness of medication and other medical interventions but had not been used in clinical psychology until this study; Well-controlled treatment outcome wstudy in a wide variety of settings that provides support for the reliability, validity, and generalizability of results

81
Q

Community-Wide Interventions

A

Used as a way to influence the behavior and health of entire communities

82
Q

Completed Research

A

Communicated to the professional community through publication in scholarly professional journals and through presentation at national and regional conferences

Clinical Psychology (10 decks)

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