Chapter 4: Research: Design and Outcome

Question 1

Basic and Applied Research

Answer 1

Provides many of the clues to important questions about diagnosis, treatment, and general uman behavior, thus allowing practitioners to implement their techniques and theories with confidence

Question 2

Goal of Research in Clinical Psychology

Answer 2

To acquire knowledge about human behavior and to use this knowledge to help improve the lives of individuals, families, and groups

Question 3

Scientific Method

Answer 3

Used by clinical psychologists in conducting research activities; set of rules and procedures that describe, explain, and predict a particular phenomenon; includes the obseration of a phenomenon, the development of hypotheses about the phenomenon, the empirical testing of the hypotheses, and the alteration of hypotheses to accommodate the new data collected and interpreted

Question 4

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fourth Edition

Answer 4

Research tool to objectively describe a given phenomenon; describes clinical syndromes and lists highly specific dignostic criteria for each psychiatric problem thus enabling researchers to better ensure that the same criteria are used to describe each population studied

Question 5

Diagnostic Criteria

Answer 5

Describes the thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with a particular clinical syndrome

Question 6

Independent Variable

Answer 6

Manipulated by the researcher and provides the structure for the study; Treatment condition;

Question 7

Dependent Variable

Answer 7

Variable that is expected to change as a result of the influence of the independent variable; what is measured by the researcher to determine whether the hypothesis can be supported or not

Question 8

Research Studies

Answer 8

Evaluate the influence of the independent/ variable(s) on the dependent measure (s); the study must be constructed such that all other factors that might influence the dependent variable are controlled, with the exception of the independent variable

Question 9

Experimental Error

Answer 9

Occurs when changes in the dependent variable are due to factors other than the influence of the independent variable

Question 10

Experimenter Expectancy Effects

Answer 10

When the experiementer might behave differently towards subjects in one condition

Question 11

Reliability

Answer 11

Stability or consistency of a measurement procedure

Question 12

Validity

Answer 12

The notion that an instrument should measure what is designed to measure

Question 13

Threat to the Experiment’s Internal Validity

Answer 13

Any potential extraneous influences on the dependent variable (other than theinfluence of the independent variable)

Question 14

Extraneous Variables

Answer 14

Variables that may threaten the internal validity of any research study include the effects of history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, statistical regression, selection bias, and experimental mortality

Question 15

History

Answer 15

Refers to events outside the experimental situation (earthquakes, death of a loved one, marriage) that could have a significant impact on the results of the study

Question 16

Maturation

Answer 16

Refers to changes within subjects over the passage of time (aging, becoming fatigued, bored, or stronger) that may influence the experimental results

Question 17

Testing

Answer 17

Concerns the influence of the testing or evaluation process itself on research results such as in the use of repeated measures obtained on the same subjects over time

Question 18

Instrumentation

Answer 18

Refers to the influences of the tests and measurement devices used to measure constructs in the study

Question 19

Statistical Regression

Answer 19

Concerns the tendency of extreme scores on a measure to move toward the mean over time

Question 20

Selection Bias

Answer 20

Refers to a differential and problematic selection procedure for choosing research subjects

Question 21

Experimental Mortality

Answer 21

Refers to attrition or subject drop out in an experiment

Question 22

External Validity

Answer 22

Refers to the generalizability of of the research results; the more similar the research experiment is to a real world situation, the more generalizable the findings

Question 23

High Degree of Control and Precision

Answer 23

Necessary to minimize experimental and random error and thus maximize internal validity

Question 24

Carefully Constructed Laboratory-Based Research

Answer 24

Should not maximize internal validity because it may jeopardize the generalizability of the results

Question 25

Threats to External Validity

Answer 25

Testing Reactivity Multiple-Treatment Interference Interaction of Selection Biases

Question 26

Testing

Answer 26

Refers to the use of a questionnaire or other assessment device that may sensitize and alter the subject's response and therefore influence the dependent measure

Question 27

Reactivity

Answer 27

Concerns the subject's potential response to participating in an experiment; subject may behave differently in an experiment than in the natural environment

Question 28

Multiple-Treatment Interference

Answer 28

Refers to exposing a subject to several treatment conditions or factors such that the experimenter cannot isolate any specific condition or factor

Question 29

Interaction of Selection Biases

Answer 29

Concerns the notion that subjects in one group may have been differentially responsive to the experimental condition in some unique manner

Question 30

Experimental Design

Answer 30

The right one with the right research question and with internal and external validity maximized is the trick

Question 31

True Experiments

Answer 31

Those that use randomization procedures with experimental and control conditions must be conducted, and all efforts made to minimize and control potential error and bias as well as to maximize both internal and external validity

Question 32

Randomization

Answer 32

Procedure where research subjects are selected in a way that they all have an equal chance of being placed in the different experimental and control groups

Question 33

Challenges Associated With Studies

Answer 33

Impossible or unethical to randomly assign human beings to certain experimental or control conditions Impossible or unethical to assign patients to a control condition in which they do not receive treatment Certain disorders are fairly rare, making it difficult to obtain enough subjects for various experimental and control conditions Because many patients experiencing psychological distress have several diagnoses, comorbidity is likely to be the rule than the exception

Question 34

Quasi-Experimental Design

Answer 34

Chosen when random assignment to experimental and control conditions is not possible because of ethical or other limitations; Limitations require caution in the interpretation of research findings and direct cause-and-effect relationships cannot be inferred

Question 35

Between Group Designs

Answer 35

Use two or more separate groups of subjects, each of which receives a different type of intervention or, in the case of a control condition, no intervention; therefore, the independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter so that different groups of subjects receive different types of experiences

Question 36

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

Answer 36

Includes two or more subject groups; while one group receives treatment, the other does not; subjects are evaluated before and after treatment on the dimension of interest

Question 37

Disadvantage of Pretest-Posttest Approach

Answer 37

Administration of a pretest might sensitize subjects or influence their response to treatment Posttest only-control could be added for prertest sensitivity

Question 38

Factorial Design

Answer 38

Between group design; provides an opportunity to study two or more factors in a given study; experimenter can examine the role of interactions between factors

Question 39

Within Groups Design

Answer 39

Used to examine the influence of the independent variable (such as treatment) on the same subjects over time.

Question 40

Ordering Effects

Answer 40

Refers to the influence of the order in which treatment or experimental conditions are presented to the subjects

Question 40

Crossover Design

Answer 40

Experimental or treatment condition switches or crosses over during the course of the experiment; two or more groups receive the same treatments; only the order of presentation is altered for each group; counterbalances the treatments so that order of presentation is controlled

Question 40

Multiple-Treatment Counterbalanced Designs

Answer 40

Three or more treatments for an experimental design

Question 40

Mixed Group Designs

Answer 40

Include elements of both between and within group designs; experiments are constructed in such a way that different groups of subjects receive different treatment or experimental experiences (between group) while subject responses are assessed over time at different phases of experiment (within group)

Question 40

Analogue Designs

Answer 40

Use procedures, subjects, and measures that approximate a real-life clinical situation and are usually conducted in a laboratory where experimental conditions can be controlled better than in the natural environment

Question 40

Case Study

Answer 40

In-depth investigation, observation, description of a single person or situation; primary technique used by Freud; not experiments because they lack dependent variables, and randomized assignment of subjects into treatment and control conditions; provide an intensive observation of a person and phenomenon that allows for the development of hypotheses and theories; Useful for examining a new, rare, or unusual phenomenon or during the early descriptive stages of a research program

Question 41

Single-Subject Designs

Answer 41

Blend case study and experimental techniques; offer the scientific rigor of experimental methods, they also allow for practical clinical relevance because they are used with only one patient or case; Use methods to both study and treat individual patients in their practice

Question 42

ABAB Design/Intrasubject Replication Design

Answer 42

Commonly used single-subject design; alternating between baseline (or no treatment) phases during a single subject intervention for a particular problem; both a single subject design and a within subjects design

Question 43

ABAB Design

Answer 43

Initial Baseline Period (A) Treatment Intervention (B) Return to No Treatment (A) Second Treatment Intervention (B)

Question 49

Multiple Baseline Design

Answer 49

Baseline data are collected for all the behaviors of interest; treatment is provided for one target behavior while baseline data are still collected on the other behaviors. Treatment intervention might then target a second behavior while continuing or removing treatment for the first behavior

Question 50

Sin Qua Non of Experimental Research

Answer 50

Random assignment-experimental and control conditions

Question 51

Correlational Designs

Answer 51

Examine the degree of association between two or more variables; do not allow cause-and-effect conclusions; provide researchers and clinicians useful information concerning the degree of associations between constructs of interest

Question 52

Correlations

Answer 52

Can be positive or negative

Question 53

Positive Correlation

Answer 53

Refers to two or more variables that move in the same direction; as one variable increases, so does the other

Question 54

Negative Correlation

Answer 54

Refers to two or more variables that move in opposite directions; as one variable increases, the other decreases

Question 55

Correlation Coefficient

Answer 55

Expression of the degree of association between variables; score ranging from -1.00 to +1.00; scores close to -1.00 reflect a nearly perfect negative correlation (while one variable is high, the other is low); scores close to +1.00 reflect a nearly positive correlation (while one variable is high, the other is also high)

Question 56

No Correlation

Answer 56

The correlation is close to zero

Question 57

Epidemiology

Answer 57

Refers to the examination of theincidence or distribution of a particular clinical problem or variable of interest

Question 58

Epidemiological Research

Answer 58

Describes the prevalence and incidence of a particular issue of concern; attempt to accurately estimate the number of people who experience certain problems, tries to provide detailed information concerning other demographic characteristics of interest

Question 59

Epidemiological Data

Answer 59

May be collected from a variety of sources such as government census, survey approaches, national polls, and hospital records;generalized from large scale multisite research projects and other sources of information usually outside of the controlled laboratory experiments

Question 60

Cross Sectional Designs

Answer 60

Provide a snapshot view of behavior at a given moment in time; generally easier and less expensive to complete;

Question 61

Longitudinal Designs

Answer 61

Generally collect research data over a long period of time

Question 62

Treatment Outcome Research Strategies For Effectively Evaluating Treatment Outcome Research

Answer 62

``` Treatment Package Strategy Dismantling Treatment Strategy Constructive Treatment Strategy Parametric Treatment Strategy Client and Therapist Variation Strategy Process Research Strategy ```

Question 63

Treatment Package Strategy

Answer 63

Attempts to answer the basic question, "Does treatment work?" Seeks to determine whether a specific treatment is effective for a specific clinical problem or disorder; A treatment package is usually employed while a control condition such as a no-treatment control or a wait-list control group is used for comparison

Question 64

Package

Answer 64

Refers to the fact that most treatment approaches include a variety of potentially helpful components

Question 65

Pseudotreatment

Answer 65

Might involve many aspects of a real treatment but would not involve what the researchers believe are the active ingredients of treatment

Question 66

Dismantling Treatment Strategies

Answer 66

Which aspect of the treatment works? To identify the active ingredient of a particular treatment strategy after the treatment has been determined effective; to conduct one, different patients or groups of patients receive different aspects of a given treatment; seeks to determine the basis for change during treatment

Question 67

Constructive Treatment Strategies

Answer 67

What might be added to an effective treatment to make it even more effective? Adds various components to the treatment to determine whether the additions will improve the treatment outcome; allows the researcher to empirically construct a treatment package by adding new components piece by piece

Question 68

Parametric Treatment Strategy

Answer 68

What aspects of treatment can be altered to make treatment work better? Changes a specific aspect of the treatment to determine whether the change can enhance treatment effectiveness; involves altering the treatment time or intensity; might include a agroup of patients receiving standard treatment while another group receives longer and more intense treatment

Question 69

Comparative Treatment Strategy

Answer 69

Which treatment approach works better? Compares different strategies for producing change in a clinical problem

Question 70

Client-Therapist Variation Strategy

Answer 70

With which type of therapist or for which type of patient is treatment most likely to be effective? Alters the types of therapists or patients to determine which combinations optimize treatment outcome (therapist has had disorder, patient is highly motivated)

Question 71

Process Research Strategy

Answer 71

How does the actual process of therapy impact treatment outcome? Seeks to determine which aspects of the psychotherapeutic process are associated with positive treatment outcome; what makes a satisfying and productive session between a therapist and a patient?

Question 72

Statistical Significance

Answer 72

Refers to the very small probability of obtaining a particular finding by error or chance; convention is that if there is less than a 5 in 100 times chance that the means of two grops come from the same population, then the null hypothesis (no difference) is rejected and the hypothesis of the study is supported; referred to as p<.05

Question 73

p<0.05

Answer 73

The probability of error is less than 5%;

Question 74

Effect Size

Answer 74

Reflects the strength or degree of impact a given result or effect has on the results of the study

Question 75

Reliable Change Index

Answer 75

Method to mathematically defined clinical significance; calculates the number of clients or patients who have moved from a dysfunctional to a more functional level of experience; measures the difference between post and pretreatment scores and then divides by the standard error of measurement; examines the degree of change and the realiability of the measure to estimate the significance of the change in functioning; valuable tool when used with good measurements

Question 76

Meta-analysis

Answer 76

Statistical method for examining the results of a large number of research studies; useful in consolidating overall results across studies

Question 77

Research Program

Answer 77

Starts with uncontrolled case studies and then lead from single case study designs to between group designs with a small number of patients over a short period of time, followed by between group designs with a large number of patients over a long period of time

Question 78

Empritically Supported Treatments

Answer 78

Well established treatment approaches that have received significant research support demonstrating their efficacy

Question 79

Criteria for Acceptance as Empirically Supported Treatments

Answer 79

Include demonstration of efficacy using well-designed between group and/or a large series of single case design experiments; Results from these experiments must have demonstrated treatment superiority to placebo or other treatments as well as having used enough subjects to have adequate statistical power; the experiments must be conducting using treatment manuals and the characteristics of the clients must be very clearly specified; effects must be found by at least two independent researchers or research teams

Question 80

Collaborative Multisite Research Projects

Answer 80

Used frequently in medicine to investigate the effectiveness of medication and other medical interventions but had not been used in clinical psychology until this study; Well-controlled treatment outcome wstudy in a wide variety of settings that provides support for the reliability, validity, and generalizability of results

Question 81

Community-Wide Interventions

Answer 81

Used as a way to influence the behavior and health of entire communities

Question 82

Completed Research

Answer 82

Communicated to the professional community through publication in scholarly professional journals and through presentation at national and regional conferences