Chapter 4: Research: Design and Outcome Flashcards
Basic and Applied Research
Provides many of the clues to important questions about diagnosis, treatment, and general uman behavior, thus allowing practitioners to implement their techniques and theories with confidence
Goal of Research in Clinical Psychology
To acquire knowledge about human behavior and to use this knowledge to help improve the lives of individuals, families, and groups
Scientific Method
Used by clinical psychologists in conducting research activities; set of rules and procedures that describe, explain, and predict a particular phenomenon; includes the obseration of a phenomenon, the development of hypotheses about the phenomenon, the empirical testing of the hypotheses, and the alteration of hypotheses to accommodate the new data collected and interpreted
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fourth Edition
Research tool to objectively describe a given phenomenon; describes clinical syndromes and lists highly specific dignostic criteria for each psychiatric problem thus enabling researchers to better ensure that the same criteria are used to describe each population studied
Diagnostic Criteria
Describes the thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with a particular clinical syndrome
Independent Variable
Manipulated by the researcher and provides the structure for the study; Treatment condition;
Dependent Variable
Variable that is expected to change as a result of the influence of the independent variable; what is measured by the researcher to determine whether the hypothesis can be supported or not
Research Studies
Evaluate the influence of the independent/ variable(s) on the dependent measure (s); the study must be constructed such that all other factors that might influence the dependent variable are controlled, with the exception of the independent variable
Experimental Error
Occurs when changes in the dependent variable are due to factors other than the influence of the independent variable
Experimenter Expectancy Effects
When the experiementer might behave differently towards subjects in one condition
Reliability
Stability or consistency of a measurement procedure
Validity
The notion that an instrument should measure what is designed to measure
Threat to the Experiment’s Internal Validity
Any potential extraneous influences on the dependent variable (other than theinfluence of the independent variable)
Extraneous Variables
Variables that may threaten the internal validity of any research study include the effects of history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, statistical regression, selection bias, and experimental mortality
History
Refers to events outside the experimental situation (earthquakes, death of a loved one, marriage) that could have a significant impact on the results of the study
Maturation
Refers to changes within subjects over the passage of time (aging, becoming fatigued, bored, or stronger) that may influence the experimental results
Testing
Concerns the influence of the testing or evaluation process itself on research results such as in the use of repeated measures obtained on the same subjects over time
Instrumentation
Refers to the influences of the tests and measurement devices used to measure constructs in the study
Statistical Regression
Concerns the tendency of extreme scores on a measure to move toward the mean over time
Selection Bias
Refers to a differential and problematic selection procedure for choosing research subjects
Experimental Mortality
Refers to attrition or subject drop out in an experiment
External Validity
Refers to the generalizability of of the research results; the more similar the research experiment is to a real world situation, the more generalizable the findings
High Degree of Control and Precision
Necessary to minimize experimental and random error and thus maximize internal validity
Carefully Constructed Laboratory-Based Research
Should not maximize internal validity because it may jeopardize the generalizability of the results
Threats to External Validity
Testing
Reactivity
Multiple-Treatment Interference
Interaction of Selection Biases
Testing
Refers to the use of a questionnaire or other assessment device that may sensitize and alter the subject’s response and therefore influence the dependent measure
Reactivity
Concerns the subject’s potential response to participating in an experiment; subject may behave differently in an experiment than in the natural environment
Multiple-Treatment Interference
Refers to exposing a subject to several treatment conditions or factors such that the experimenter cannot isolate any specific condition or factor
Interaction of Selection Biases
Concerns the notion that subjects in one group may have been differentially responsive to the experimental condition in some unique manner
Experimental Design
The right one with the right research question and with internal and external validity maximized is the trick
True Experiments
Those that use randomization procedures with experimental and control conditions must be conducted, and all efforts made to minimize and control potential error and bias as well as to maximize both internal and external validity
Randomization
Procedure where research subjects are selected in a way that they all have an equal chance of being placed in the different experimental and control groups
Challenges Associated With Studies
Impossible or unethical to randomly assign human beings to certain experimental or control conditions
Impossible or unethical to assign patients to a control condition in which they do not receive treatment
Certain disorders are fairly rare, making it difficult to obtain enough subjects for various experimental and control conditions
Because many patients experiencing psychological distress have several diagnoses, comorbidity is likely to be the rule than the exception
Quasi-Experimental Design
Chosen when random assignment to experimental and control conditions is not possible because of ethical or other limitations; Limitations require caution in the interpretation of research findings and direct cause-and-effect relationships cannot be inferred
Between Group Designs
Use two or more separate groups of subjects, each of which receives a different type of intervention or, in the case of a control condition, no intervention; therefore, the independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter so that different groups of subjects receive different types of experiences
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
Includes two or more subject groups; while one group receives treatment, the other does not; subjects are evaluated before and after treatment on the dimension of interest
Disadvantage of Pretest-Posttest Approach
Administration of a pretest might sensitize subjects or influence their response to treatment
Posttest only-control could be added for prertest sensitivity
Factorial Design
Between group design; provides an opportunity to study two or more factors in a given study; experimenter can examine the role of interactions between factors
Within Groups Design
Used to examine the influence of the independent variable (such as treatment) on the same subjects over time.
Ordering Effects
Refers to the influence of the order in which treatment or experimental conditions are presented to the subjects
Crossover Design
Experimental or treatment condition switches or crosses over during the course of the experiment; two or more groups receive the same treatments; only the order of presentation is altered for each group; counterbalances the treatments so that order of presentation is controlled
Multiple-Treatment Counterbalanced Designs
Three or more treatments for an experimental design
Mixed Group Designs
Include elements of both between and within group designs; experiments are constructed in such a way that different groups of subjects receive different treatment or experimental experiences (between group) while subject responses are assessed over time at different phases of experiment (within group)
Analogue Designs
Use procedures, subjects, and measures that approximate a real-life clinical situation and are usually conducted in a laboratory where experimental conditions can be controlled better than in the natural environment
Case Study
In-depth investigation, observation, description of a single person or situation; primary technique used by Freud; not experiments because they lack dependent variables, and randomized assignment of subjects into treatment and control conditions; provide an intensive observation of a person and phenomenon that allows for the development of hypotheses and theories; Useful for examining a new, rare, or unusual phenomenon or during the early descriptive stages of a research program
Single-Subject Designs
Blend case study and experimental techniques; offer the scientific rigor of experimental methods, they also allow for practical clinical relevance because they are used with only one patient or case; Use methods to both study and treat individual patients in their practice
ABAB Design/Intrasubject Replication Design
Commonly used single-subject design; alternating between baseline (or no treatment) phases during a single subject intervention for a particular problem; both a single subject design and a within subjects design
ABAB Design
Initial Baseline Period (A)
Treatment Intervention (B)
Return to No Treatment (A)
Second Treatment Intervention (B)
Multiple Baseline Design
Baseline data are collected for all the behaviors of interest; treatment is provided for one target behavior while baseline data are still collected on the other behaviors. Treatment intervention might then target a second behavior while continuing or removing treatment for the first behavior
Sin Qua Non of Experimental Research
Random assignment-experimental and control conditions
Correlational Designs
Examine the degree of association between two or more variables; do not allow cause-and-effect conclusions; provide researchers and clinicians useful information concerning the degree of associations between constructs of interest
Correlations
Can be positive or negative
Positive Correlation
Refers to two or more variables that move in the same direction; as one variable increases, so does the other
Negative Correlation
Refers to two or more variables that move in opposite directions; as one variable increases, the other decreases
Correlation Coefficient
Expression of the degree of association between variables; score ranging from -1.00 to +1.00; scores close to -1.00 reflect a nearly perfect negative correlation (while one variable is high, the other is low); scores close to +1.00 reflect a nearly positive correlation (while one variable is high, the other is also high)
No Correlation
The correlation is close to zero
Epidemiology
Refers to the examination of theincidence or distribution of a particular clinical problem or variable of interest
Epidemiological Research
Describes the prevalence and incidence of a particular issue of concern; attempt to accurately estimate the number of people who experience certain problems, tries to provide detailed information concerning other demographic characteristics of interest
Epidemiological Data
May be collected from a variety of sources such as government census, survey approaches, national polls, and hospital records;generalized from large scale multisite research projects and other sources of information usually outside of the controlled laboratory experiments
Cross Sectional Designs
Provide a snapshot view of behavior at a given moment in time; generally easier and less expensive to complete;
Longitudinal Designs
Generally collect research data over a long period of time
Treatment Outcome Research Strategies For Effectively Evaluating Treatment Outcome Research
Treatment Package Strategy Dismantling Treatment Strategy Constructive Treatment Strategy Parametric Treatment Strategy Client and Therapist Variation Strategy Process Research Strategy
Treatment Package Strategy
Attempts to answer the basic question, “Does treatment work?” Seeks to determine whether a specific treatment is effective for a specific clinical problem or disorder; A treatment package is usually employed while a control condition such as a no-treatment control or a wait-list control group is used for comparison
Package
Refers to the fact that most treatment approaches include a variety of potentially helpful components
Pseudotreatment
Might involve many aspects of a real treatment but would not involve what the researchers believe are the active ingredients of treatment
Dismantling Treatment Strategies
Which aspect of the treatment works? To identify the active ingredient of a particular treatment strategy after the treatment has been determined effective; to conduct one, different patients or groups of patients receive different aspects of a given treatment; seeks to determine the basis for change during treatment
Constructive Treatment Strategies
What might be added to an effective treatment to make it even more effective? Adds various components to the treatment to determine whether the additions will improve the treatment outcome; allows the researcher to empirically construct a treatment package by adding new components piece by piece
Parametric Treatment Strategy
What aspects of treatment can be altered to make treatment work better? Changes a specific aspect of the treatment to determine whether the change can enhance treatment effectiveness; involves altering the treatment time or intensity; might include a agroup of patients receiving standard treatment while another group receives longer and more intense treatment
Comparative Treatment Strategy
Which treatment approach works better? Compares different strategies for producing change in a clinical problem
Client-Therapist Variation Strategy
With which type of therapist or for which type of patient is treatment most likely to be effective? Alters the types of therapists or patients to determine which combinations optimize treatment outcome (therapist has had disorder, patient is highly motivated)
Process Research Strategy
How does the actual process of therapy impact treatment outcome? Seeks to determine which aspects of the psychotherapeutic process are associated with positive treatment outcome; what makes a satisfying and productive session between a therapist and a patient?
Statistical Significance
Refers to the very small probability of obtaining a particular finding by error or chance; convention is that if there is less than a 5 in 100 times chance that the means of two grops come from the same population, then the null hypothesis (no difference) is rejected and the hypothesis of the study is supported; referred to as p<.05
p<0.05
The probability of error is less than 5%;
Effect Size
Reflects the strength or degree of impact a given result or effect has on the results of the study
Reliable Change Index
Method to mathematically defined clinical significance; calculates the number of clients or patients who have moved from a dysfunctional to a more functional level of experience; measures the difference between post and pretreatment scores and then divides by the standard error of measurement; examines the degree of change and the realiability of the measure to estimate the significance of the change in functioning; valuable tool when used with good measurements
Meta-analysis
Statistical method for examining the results of a large number of research studies; useful in consolidating overall results across studies
Research Program
Starts with uncontrolled case studies and then lead from single case study designs to between group designs with a small number of patients over a short period of time, followed by between group designs with a large number of patients over a long period of time
Empritically Supported Treatments
Well established treatment approaches that have received significant research support demonstrating their efficacy
Criteria for Acceptance as Empirically Supported Treatments
Include demonstration of efficacy using well-designed between group and/or a large series of single case design experiments; Results from these experiments must have demonstrated treatment superiority to placebo or other treatments as well as having used enough subjects to have adequate statistical power; the experiments must be conducting using treatment manuals and the characteristics of the clients must be very clearly specified; effects must be found by at least two independent researchers or research teams
Collaborative Multisite Research Projects
Used frequently in medicine to investigate the effectiveness of medication and other medical interventions but had not been used in clinical psychology until this study; Well-controlled treatment outcome wstudy in a wide variety of settings that provides support for the reliability, validity, and generalizability of results
Community-Wide Interventions
Used as a way to influence the behavior and health of entire communities
Completed Research
Communicated to the professional community through publication in scholarly professional journals and through presentation at national and regional conferences
