Chapter 4: Paying Attention

Question 1

Selective Attention

Answer 1

Focus attention on one or a few tasks/events
Mentally focus our resources, shut down competing tasks
Attention usually happens before perception

Question 2

Dichotic Listening Task

Answer 2

Person listens to a recorded message on headphones
Different messages play simultaneously in different ears
Asked to repeat out loud (shadow) one of the messages
At the end, participants are asked what they remember from either message (attended or unattended message)

Question 3

Dichotic Listening Results

Answer 3

Most participants can report the gender of the speaker, if it was speech or noise, from the unattended recording
If message is speech playing backwards, many participants report something odd about it but not sure what
Participants don’t recall the content of the unattended message or the language it was spoken

Question 4

Filter Theory (Broadbent)

Answer 4

There are limits on how much info a person can attend to at a given time
People use an attentional filter to let some info through and to block the rest
Explains why so little of meaning of unattended messages can be recalled (because it is not processed)

Question 5

Cocktail Party Effect (Moray)

Answer 5

Shadowing performance is disrupted when one’s own name is embedded in the attended or unattended message
People remember hearing their name

Question 6

Problems With Filter Theory

Answer 6

Cocktail party effect shows that people do hear their own name in unattended message, which causes their attention to switch
Conclude that only important material penetrates the filter (how the filter knows what isn’t important we don’t know)

Question 7

Attenuation Theory (Treisman)

Answer 7

Volume of unattended messages was turned down
Some meaningful information in unattended messages might still be available, even if hard to recover

Question 8

Attenuation Theory Stage 1

Answer 8

Attenuator instead of filter
Analyzes for physical characteristics, language, and meaning
Analysis only done to necessary level to identify which message should be attended
Unattended message is attenuated

Question 9

Attenuation Theory Stage 2

Answer 9

Dictionary unit
Contains stored words that have thresholds
Important items, such as own name, have lower thresholds and thus even weak signal can activate the word

Question 10

Attenuation Theory: Three Kinds of Analyses

Answer 10

Message’s physical properties
Linguistic
Semantic

Question 11

Physical Properties of Message Analysis

Answer 11

Pitch, loudness

Question 12

Linguistic Analyses

Answer 12

Parsing the message into syllables and words

Question 13

Semantic Analyses

Answer 13

Processing the meaning of the message

Question 14

Context & Thresholds

Answer 14

Context of a word in a message can temporarily lower its threshold
E.g. the dog chased the… (cat is primed)

Question 15

Late Selection Theory

Answer 15

All messages are routinely processed for at least some aspects of meaning
Attentional selection occurs after this routine processes, later relative to other models of attentional processing
Message’s importance depends on context and personal significance, observer’s level of alertness

Question 16

Evidence for Late Selection

Answer 16

Bulk of evidence suggests info in unattended channel sometimes receives processing for meaning
But most results demonstrate late selection can be explained through attentional lapses or special cases of particularly salient or important stimuli
Unlikely that unattended messages are processed for meaning to the same degree as attended messages

Question 17

Attention, Capacity, & Mental Effort

Answer 17

More complex stimulus, the harder the processing, and the more attentional resources are required
People can often choose where to allocate their attentional resources
Arousal increases cognitive resources available
Some tasks increase performance with concentration

Question 18

Data Limited Task

Answer 18

Depends entirely on the quality of the incoming data, not on mental effort or concentration

Question 19

Automaticity

Answer 19

Over time the attentional capacity required for a given task decreases
Down side: increased susceptibility to certain types of interference

Question 20

Stroop Effect

Answer 20

Present participants with series of colour bars or colour words printed on conflicting colours
Participants asked to name the ink colour of each item
Became difficult when word describes a different colour than the ink
Adults tend to be so literate that not reading words is hard
Effect is bigger the older you are (e.g. younger kids find this task easier, because reading is less automatic)

Question 21

Automatic Response

Answer 21

Requires no attention and cannot be inhibited

Question 22

Automatic Processing

Answer 22

Without intention
No conscious awareness
Not interfere with other mental activities
Parallel
Does not constrain capacity limitations

Question 23

Controlled Processing

Answer 23

Serial
Requires attention
Capacity limited
Under conscious control
Deliberate
Used for difficult tasks and ones that involve unfamiliar processes

Question 24

Divided Attention

Answer 24

Being able to perform multiple tasks at once
2 participants (5 days per week for 17 weeks, 1 hour sessions) learned to write words dictated while they read short stories
After 6 weeks practice, reading rates approached their normal speeches
After 6 weeks, reading comprehension tests were comparable whether they were only reading stories or reading while writing dictated words

Question 25

Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)

Answer 25

Slowed response time to a second stimulus at short intervals

Question 26

How We Learn To Multi Task

Answer 26

Participants learn to combine two separate tasks
Practice with specific tasks caused the participants to perform them differently than they did at first
Practice plays huge role in performance

Question 27

Attention Hypothesis of Automatization

Answer 27

Attention is needed during the practice phase of a task and determines what gets learning during practice
Attention determines what will be remembered from the practice

Question 28

Cell Phone Use & Driving

Answer 28

Participants doing a tracking video game
Listening to radio didn’t cause participant to react slowly
Talking on phone with confederate decreased performance
Shadowing the confederate’s words did not decrease performance
Having to come up with a word starting with the letter the confederate’s word ended with caused difficulty

Question 29

Spatial Cueing

Answer 29

Ask observers to fixate on a plus sign in center of screen
Arrow cue appeared above the fication
Observers were told to move attention but not eyes in the direction indicated by the arrow
Observers were fastest in identifying targets in validly cued condition and slowest in invalidly cued session

Question 30

Feature Integration Theory

Answer 30

Perceive objects in two distinct stages
First stage: prattantice/automatic, register all features of objects
Second stage: attention allows us to glue to features together into a unified object

Question 31

Illusory Conjunctions

Answer 31

Conjunction reported is illusory (e.g. out window you saw red honda nd blue toyota, later report you saw a red toyota)
When people are mentally taxed, they combine features

Question 32

Inattentional Blindness

Answer 32

Not perceiving a stimulus that is right in front of you, unless you pay attention
E.g. gorilla and basketball video

Question 33

Hemineglect

Answer 33

Right hemisphere parietal lesions
Attentional deficit, not sensory deficit
Patient neglects contralateral hemi space
May also neglect contralateral side of body
Often possible to recover from

Question 34

Alerting Network

Answer 34

Achieving and maintaining an alert state
Frontal and parietal regions of right hemisphere

Question 35

Orienting Network

Answer 35

Selects info from sensory input
Both areas of both parietal and frontal lobes

Question 36

Executive Control Network

Answer 36

Resolves conflict among different responses
Frontal lobes, especially prefrontal cortex