Chapter 4 Flashcards
Main functions of the skeletal system
There are 5
- Movement: Skeletal system provides points of attachment for muscles. Your legs and arms move when the muscles pull on the bones.
- Support: The backbone is the main support centre for the upper body. It holds your head up and protects your spinal cord.
- Protection: The bones of your skull protect your brain. Your ribs protect your lungs and heart from injury.
- Makes Blood: Red and white blood cells are formed by tissue called marrow, which is in the centre of the bone.
- Storage: Bones store minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus, for use by the body
What are the three main functions of the Skelton and give a brief description
Movement, protection, support
•supporting your soft tissues. Without a skeleton your skin and the organs inside your body would collapse
•protecting organs. This is the main role of your axial skeleton, which is made up of 80 bones. It includes your skull (which protects your brain), vertebrate (which protects your spinal cord), and ribs and sternum or breastbone (which protect your lungs and heart)
•Allowing movement. This is the main role of your appendicular skeleton
What does the axial skeleton consist of?
- the skull,
- spine,
- ribs
- sternum.
What does the appendicular skeleton consist of?
The appendages of the body, which are the
- shoulders,
- arms,
- hips,
- legs.
What are the Four basic bone shapes?
- Long- arms, legs and fingers
- Short- wrist and ankles
- Flat- skull and sternum
- Irregular- spine
Bone Structure
Typical Four Layers:
Periosteum: Covers Bones
Compact Bone: Lies beneath the periosteum
Spongy Bone: Lies beneath the compact bone
Bone Marrow: Fills the gaps between the spongy bone
Role of the Clavicle or Collarbone
holds the shoulder joint away from the rest of the upper body
Location and role of Scapula
The scapula is located on the back side of the ribcage and helps provide part of the shoulder joint and movement for the arms
What are joints
A joint is where two bones meet. It can be moveable or fixed
What would happen if we didn’t have joints
If we did not have joints we would find simple tasks like eating very difficult. Any movement needing bending would be impossible!!!!
Describe a hinge joint and how it works
Hinge joint: in this joint, the ends of the bones are shaped so that movement is allowed in only one plane- backwards and forwards like the hinge of a door. Hinge joints work like a lever and allow movement of 180o The ends of the bones in a hinge joint are covered by cartilage. Muscles work in pairs to contact and relax to move the joint
Describe a Ball and socket joint and how it works
Ball and socket joint: in this joint one bone had a ball-shaped surface that fits into a cup-shaped socket in the other bone. He bone with the ball at its end is able to complete all types of movement Ball and socket joints allow the joint to rotate in 360o allowing a lot of flexibility.
Both the ball and the socket are covered by a layer of cartilage.
Describe a pivot joint and how it works
Pivot joint: a pivot joint, moves by a ring-shaped bone turning around another bone shaped like a finger. Pivot joints allow bones to rotate around each other by 360o. The reason our neck does not rotate 360o fully is because muscles limit how far it will rotate.
The ends of the bones in a pivot joint are covered by cartilage
Describe a saddle joint and how it works
Saddle point: this allows movement in two directions but doesn’t allow the same amount of movement as a ball and socket joint. Provide stability to the bones while providing more flexibility than a hinge or gliding joint.
To protect your bones from wear what do joints have, give a brief description
Cartilage: a smooth and slippery material that covers the ends of bones that are moving against each other
Synovial fluid: which lubricates the bone ends and allows them to slide over each other freely
What is a ligament
Ligaments are bands of tough, flexible tissue that holds the bones in a joint together. Ligaments prevent the bones of the joking from moving too far apart
What is a tendon
Tissues that attach muscles to bones and hold the muscles in position.
When activated, muscles contract, becoming fatter and shorter. They pull on the bones they’re attached to, causing them to move
What are muscles
It is your muscles that move bones. Muscles are tissues that are able to contract (shorten) and be stretched
How many muscles are there in a single human body
640
Muscles can only pull. They cannot push. Describe how this works
Therefore, another muscle is required to return the bone to its original position
What are antagonistic pairs and give an example and explain
Antagonistic means that they work in opposition to each other.
The biceps and triceps are antagonistic muscles in your upper arm.
The biceps contracts contracts when activated, pulling your forearm up. The bicep then relaxes. To lower the forearm, the triceps contracts. The relaxed biceps is stretched back to its original shape and the arm is straightened
What is reproduction
The process by which parents produce new individuals. These new individuals are commonly called offspring
What is sexual reproduction
Reproduction usually requiring two parent
What is asexual reproduction
asexual means without sex, and so it only needs one parent
Describe sexual reproduction
Happens when a sperm from a male enters an egg from a female and fertilises it. The process is called fertilisation. Sperm and eggs are special reproductive cells, known as gametes. The male gamete is the sperm and the female gamete is the egg. Fertilisation results in a new cell called a zygote. The zygote then grows by dividing to form many copies of itself. The zygote eventually grows and develops into a new individual.
Describe all the roles in a plant
In sexual production pollen produced by anthers needs to be deposited onto the stigma. This is called pollination. Sexual reproduction requires two parents
Anther- produces pollen that contains the male gamete
Stigma- site for pollen to be deposited
Ovary- produces the eggs and encloses the seeds when they form
Filament- holds the anther
Sepal- covers the flower in the bud and protects it
Style- connects the stigma to the ovary
Petal- coloured parts that attract animals to allow pollination
Asexual reproduction in animals
Budding
New life grows from a bud
The bud breaks off and forms offspring
Eg hydra
Fission
Splitting into two
Starfish do this
Parthogenesis
Develop from eggs that haven’t been fertilised by a males
Eg fleas, aphids, bees
List and describe all the vegetative reproduction
Tuber- stem develops many swollen parts called tubers underground each tuber can grow into a new plant eg potato
Bulb- a swollen underground part that develops many fleshy leaves eg onion, tulip, iris, lily, garlic, daffodil
Rhizome- stem grow along underground and sends up new shoots and roots at interval eg bamboo, ginger, asparagus, lily, iris
Plantlet- leaves develop small plants on edges. These grow hen the leaf falls on the ground eg kalanchoe, tree of, life
Root sucker- root sends up new stems when they’re near the surface, especially if disturbed eg robin is, tree of heaven, many eucalyptus
Runner- stems run along above ground and send down roots and shoots at intervals eg many grasses, strawberries, ivy, violets
What is cloning
The process of producing identical individuals through reproduction
This happens when the cells of the of the offspring came from the parent cells dividing by mitosis
Name and describe all the types of cloning methods
Plant culture
Method of cloning plants, carried out in a laboratory
Tissue samples scraped from plants
Tissue samples placed in agar growth medium, containing nutrients + axins
Develops into tiny plantlets
Planted into compost
Cell culture
Method where individual cells are cloned
The more often cells divide, the more changes there’ll be
This’ll make some of new plants different from a parent
Cuttings
Similar to plant culture, doesn’t need expensive equipment
Small pieces of leaf are cut off, dipped in plant hormones, placed in soil on a tray
New roots grow eventually new plant grows
Animal reproduction
Male organs
Female organs
Males have organs called tested, which produce sperm
Sperm pass from the testes to the outside of the body
Female organs
In females, the ovaries make the egg cell
The eggs pass from the ovaries down tubes called oviducts
The eggs may be fertilised outside the females body.
External fertilisation
Internal fertilisation
External fertilisation
This fertilisation happens outside the body
Male frogs fertilise eggs laid by the female in water
External fertilisation is used by mainly by water animals
Some include frogs, sea urchins and jellyfish
Internal fertilisation
Internal fertilisation happens inside the body
All land animals use internal fertilisation, as do some water based animals
Copulation is the act of sex and it allows a male to transfer sperm to the female
Mammals= male inserts his own is into the female
Octopus= male transfers sperm with one of his tentacles
Some examples include mammals, reptiles, birds and some types of fish
What is meiosis
The cell division of the gamete cells and occurs in the male and female reproductive organs
In meiosis each gamete splits into 4 cells all different to each other with 23 chromosomes
A gamete contains only half the genetic information that has a normal cell has
Describe Fertilisation
The fertilised cell will then contain all the genetic information 46 chromosomes
The fertilised cell is called a zygote. The fertilised cell then divides by mitosis to make an identical copy
Describe pregnancy
During sex the man inserts his penis into the women vagina
Millions of sperm cells are ejaculated into the top of the vagina
They enter the uterus, through the cervix, where the sperm cells may meet an egg
List the steps of implantation
Egg is released Sperm is ejaculated Fertilisation + zygote Cells divide + multiply = embryo Implantation + placenta formed embryo goes onto the lining
What is: Ovulation Ejaculation Fertilisation Implantation
Ovulation- the release of an egg
Ejaculation- the ejection of sperm through the penis
Fertilisation- the egg and the nuclei fuse
Implantation- the embryo sinks into the uterus lining
Male reproductive system
Testes - where the sperm is produced
Scrotum- the sac that the tested hang out of the body in
Sperm duct (vas deferents)- squeezes the sperm along the way
Seminal vesicles- adds fluid to sperm. Fluid contains sugars
Posrtrate gland- adds fluids to sperm
Urethra- sperm passes out of the penis
•semen is made when the fluids mix with the sperm
Female reproductive system
Ovary- stores/releases eggs. A follicle forms each month around an egg
Uterus- embryo grows and develops
Cervix- ring of muscle that tightens (hold baby in place)
Vagina - where the sperm gets deposited
Fallopian tube - this is where fertilisation happens
Roles of the reproductive system
Ovary- to produce egg
Oviduct- to carry eggs to the uterus
What is an embryo
The developing baby is called the embryo for the first 8 weeks
The is the point that all the cells develop into different tissues for example.muscle tissue
What is amniotic fluid
A baby is cocooned in an amnion
The amnion is filled with amniotic fluid
The fluid acts like a shock absorber and keeps the temperature regular
What is the placenta
The placenta
The placenta allows nutrients and oxygen to enter the baby and wastes to be removed
The placenta is connected by the umbilical cord
What is a foetus
The foetus
After 9 weeks the baby is referred to as a foetus
It has developed most of its major organs and organs and systems
What is gestation and birth
Gestation and birth
Gestation is how long the pregnancy lasts
40 weeks
Birth is referred to as labour
Babies are born head first
The umbilical cord is cut and the afterbirth (placenta) follows
What is the FSH and what does it stand for
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)- egg matures
What is the oestrogen
Oestrogen-thickening of uterine lining. Stimulates LH
What is the LH and what does it stand for
Lutenising hormone (LH)- releasing egg from the follicle
What is afterbirth?
When the placenta is expelled from the mother after birth
What is the anther?
The part of a flower that produces pollen
What is asexual reproduction?
a form of reproduction where only one parent produces the offspring and no joining of sperm and eggs is involved
What is a blastocyst?
a hollow ball of cells that develops into an embryo
What is budding?
a form of asexual reproduction, where the offspring grows from part of the parent’s body then detaches from the parent
What is a bulb?
A swollen underground part of a stem that has fleshy ‘leaves’ and can grow into a new plant
What is the cervix?
part of the uterus that keeps it closed while the baby is developing
What is a clone?
a copy of a particular individual.
What is cloning?
the process of producing identical individuals through reproduction
What is copulation
two individuals joining together for sexual reproduction
What is development?
changes in form and structure in an individual over its life, from zygote to adult
What is ejaculation?
the process of sperm being squeezed out of the penis
What is the main function of the axial skeleton?
Protecting your organs
What is the main function of the appendicular skeleton?
To allow movement
What do our bones protect?
Our vital organs
How does our skeleton help us move?
Muscles are connected to the skeleton, they contract to help us move
What does the skeleton store?
Minerals-calcium and phosphorus
Where is bone marrow produced?
- in the ends of long bones
- in flat bones
How many bones in the human body?
206
