Chapter 4 Flashcards
Neurotransmitters in synapse reabsorbed into sending neurons
reuptake
Neurotransmitters in synapse are destroyed by enzymes in the synapse
degradation
enzymes that alter the functioning of other proteins, including ion channels and receptors
kinase
a protein is a chain of building block molecules called:
amino acids
in the peripheral nervous system, groups of cell bodies are called ____ and the bundles of axons are called ____
- ganglia
- nerves
what is tyrosine
a common precursor. leads to Ldopa which leads to dopamine which leads to norepinephrine which leads to epinephrine
depolarisation
the membrane potential becomes LESS negative
what are the three catecholamines
dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine
the cell is covered by a membrane which contains ____
cytoplasm
which dopamine production area is part of the incentive learning system
ventral tegmental area
the major excitatory system
glutamate
these projections are involved in autonomic nervous system activity as well as posture, balance, and motor movement
descending reiticular formation
what is the resting mV
-70 mV
what would happen if you didnt have myelin
ion channels would open slowly
what are the two main types of cells
neurons and glia cells
what are the three passive processes
- diffusion
- electrostatic charge
- differential permeability
the birth of new neurons
neurogenesis
the inside of the neuron is ___ (positive or negative) relative to the outside
negative
Junction between terminal of sending neuron and dendrite or cell body of receiving neuron
the synapse
which neurotransmitter does the sympathetic nervous system use
norepinephrine
morphine-like molecules that bind to opioid receptors
opioid type peptides
which brain region is involved in memory for locations in space and behavioural classical conditioning
the basal ganglia
what are the (7) ways drugs can effect neurotransmission
- receptor agonism
- receptor antagonism
- change in enzyme activity
- alter transmitter reuptake
- alter activity of second messenger
- interfere with ion channels
- change amount of transmitter released
special gated ion channels that are sensitive to the number of positive charges inside the cell
voltage gated ion channels
Neuron produces several action potentials close in time
temporal summation
people with damage to the ____ are slow, clumsy, and my appear to be intoxicated by alcohol
cerebellum
Made up of all the sensory nerves from the conscious senses and to consciously controlled motor regions
somatic nervous system
pyramidal motor system
the system that connects the motor cortex to the muscles
supply neurons with oxygen and nutrients and remove dead waste
glia cells
An EPSP (excitatory post-synaptic potential) makes the cell _____
less negative
this neurotransmitter is involved in attention, sleep and wakefulness, feeding behaviours, and emotion
norepinephrine
Explain a PET scan
participant ingests a radiated tracer (often glucose). we can track where that glucose is being used up the most which signals that region is being activated
vital component of the brains reward circuit for reinforcers
ventral tegmental area (VTA)
___ is a groove, ____ is a really deep groove
- sulcus
- fissure
muscarinic receptors are blocked by what
atropine (like the eye doctor drops) and scopolamine
excitatory
positive ions enter the cell making it less negative
the means by which the brain and spinal cord receive information from and allow us to interact with the environment
somatic nervous system
ionotropic receptors
binding sites directly connected to a gated ion channel
help to maintain communication by shielding neurons
glia cells
motor area of the brain that is interconnected with the basal ganglia
substantia nigra
exitotoxicity
overstimulation of glutamate receptors can be toxic, leading to cell death
a chemical that is synthesised and released by neurons to modulate the effects of neurotransmitters
neuromodulators
the autonomic nervous system is concerned with:
sensory info we are usually unaware of (i.e. hormone levels, blood pressure, etc.)
these ion channels open and close in response to specific stimuli. they are not involved in resting potential
gated ion channels
what are the two glutamate receptors
ion channel associated (ionotropic) and G protein coupled (metabotropic)
which neurotransmitter does the parasympathetic nervous system use
acetecholine
saltatory conduction
action potentials are quicker along myelinated axons vs unmyelinated axons as they jump from node to node
what are the four criteria to be considered a neurotransmitter
- synthesised within the neuron
- released in response to cell depolarisation
- binds to receptors that alter the postsynaptic cell
- removed or deactivated by some mechanism in the synaptic cleft
hyperpolarisation
the membrane potential becomes MORE negative
which division of the autonomic nervous system deals with fight or flight response
the sympathetic division
During the _________ Na ions rush into cell and fully depolarize it
action potential (AP)
explain an MRI
uses a powerful magnet that forces alignment of hydrogen atoms. electromagnetic energy waves are directed into the body which will cause the atoms to begin resonating which can then be used to create an image during the relaxation phase where energy is released
receptor sites are situated on the extracellular portion of a long signal protein that weaves back and forth across the cell membrane several times
metabotropic receptors
what are the two functional units of the peripheral nervous system
- the somatic nervous system
- the autonomic nervous system
the largest part of a cell
the soma/cell body which contains the nucleus and structures for the cells life processes
____ ion channels are always open but are specialised so that only certain ions can pass through
nongated ion channels
the brains “pleasure pathway”
medial forebrain bundle
stimulation of some raphe nuclei causes _____
sleep
the tendency for similar electrical charges to repel each other and opposite electrical charges to attract one another
electrostatic charge process
which type of brain imaging uses a radiotracer
PET (positron emission tomography) Scans
the substantia nigra projects dopamine into the _____
dorsal striatum
responsible for receiving sensory information from outside the body, integrating and storing information, and controlling the action of muscles and glands
neurons
specialised nerve cells that are depolarised or hyperpolarised by events in the environment
sensory neurons
“we say that action potentials are _____ because they reach the axon terminal with the same strength as when they were initiated near the axon hillcock”
nondecremental
what system is responsible for involuntary motor movements
the extrapyramidal motor system
where does the ventral tegmental area project dopamine
ventral striatum
the output side of the basal ganglia (where projections from the striatum are sent)
the globus pallidus
A drug that serves as a precursor is a:
(agonist or antagonist)
agonist
the strengthening of connections between neurons
synaptic plasticity
An IPSP (inhibitory post-synaptic potential) makes the cell ______
more negative
the stronger the depolarising stimulus the faster the membrane will fire. this is called the:
rate law
What is a ligand
generic name for a neurotransmitter
important in controlling voluntary movement, eye movement, etc.
basal ganglia
maintains homeostasis in the body
hypothalamus
what is the myelin sheath
fatty material which coats sections of the axon
it is made up of cell bodies and synapses with interneurons
the spinal cord
in the central nervous system, groups of cell bodies are called ____ and the bundles of axons are called ____
- nuclei or centers
- tracts
Concerned with sensory systems that are normally regulated unconsciously
autonomic nervous system
between the presynaptic terminal buttons and the postsynaptic cell is a small gap called the:
synaptic cleft
what do opioid type peptides do
involved in thinks like blood pressure, food/fluid intake, pain sensitivity, sexual behaviour, the reinforcement of drugs and rewards, among other things
serotonin and melatonin are what type of monoamines
indoleamines
Neurotransmitters are released and bind but they do not stay there forever because:
otherwise there would be a seizure
what are the two amino acid neurotranmitters
glutamate and GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
patterns of gene activation and silencing
epigenome
processes emotions, particularly negative ones like fear and anger
amygdala
thalamus
relay centre that transmits sensory info as well as nonsensory motor messages from the cerebellum
responsible for processing emotional stimuli, and both conditioned and unconditioned fear
the limbic system via the amygdala (conditioned) and the septum (unconditioned)
inhibitory
makes the cell more negative by keeping out positive ions
which brain region coordinates with the pituitary gland
the hypothalamus
what does the globus pallidus project to
the subthalamic nuclei
what is an autoreceptor?
receptor for the same thing the terminal is releasing. They monitor how much transmitter is in the synaptic gap and regulates release -> negative feedback loops
The summation of inhibitory and excitatory synaptic inputs determines whether the cell will fire. The two types of summation are :
Spatial and temporal
why are there not many drugs which target glutamate
just safety
uninsulated sections of the axon are called:
nodes of ranvier
nicotinic receptors are blocked by _____
curare
what mV is the threshold for action potential
-55 mV
what does curare do
its the horror movie thing. you can’t move but you feel everything
where do SSRIs act
in the raphe nuclei
what is diffusion
the tendency of a substance to move down its concentration gradient from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
which region is involved in the prediction of punishment
the cingulate gyrus
how did MAO-I’s work
inhibiting the breakdown of monoamines
drugs of abuse target dopamine in which area
the ventral tegmental area
coordinates motor function between the cortex and the cerebellum
pons
metabotropic receptors that provide feedback on amount of neurotransmitter released
autoreceptors
the distribution of ions in the absence of stimulation
resting potential
what do the nodes of ranvier do
help with conduction of action potentials
Two or more neurons release transmitters onto the same target neuron
spatial summation
what is microdialysis
pushes in fluid and samples the fluid that comes out to measure neurotransmitter levels
does GABA increase or decrease arousal
decrease
parkinsons disease is associated with which dopamine projection area
the dorsal striatum from the substantia nigra
mediates fear and fear conditioning
amygdala
what is the difference between receptor agonism and receptor antagonism
agonism is facilitating, whereas antagonism works against
involved in fine motor control (restraining big movements)
cerebellum
whats the difference between a PET scan, and MRI, and an fMri
PET scan shows activity but uses radiotracer, MRI gives a structural image, and fMRI is a combo of both but at a low resolution
excitable cells that analyse and transmit information
neurons
what are biogenic amines
another way to say monoamines
schizophrenia is associated with which dopamine projection region
the ventral striatum from the ventral tegmental area
assesses relative difference in neurotransmitter levels, but cannot quantify absolute amounts
cyclic voltammetry
the region of the brain that is involved in pain sensation and defensive behaviour
the periaqueductal gray (PAG)
the major inhibitory system
GABA
heteroreceptors
respond to chemicals released by the postsynaptic cell or other nearby cells when they become depolarised
the ___ system is made up of the hippocampus, the amygdala, the septum, and more
the limbic system
what are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system
- the parasympathetic division
- the sympathetic divison
what are the four main neurotransmitter systems
- acetylcholine system
- dopamine system
- serotonin system
- norepinephrine system
the area at the based of the brain that connects to the spinal cord is called the
medulla
antipsychotics primarily work on what type of receptors
dopamine
what is the main function of the ascending reticular formation
maintaining levels of activation in the cortex / controlling level of cognitive arousal
what do interneurons do
help coordinate sensory and motor behaviour
the primary memory structure
hippocampus
explain fMRI
magnetically responsive substance administered which allows areas of activity to be observed based on where oxygen is flowing
Record currents from individual or groups of neurons
electrophysiology
When a chemical interacts with a large number of neurons rather than only at one synapse
neuromodulation
controls breathing and vomiting
the medulla
the locus coeruleus is located where
in the pons
