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1 Reservoir Geosciences > Chapter 4 > Flashcards

Chapter 4 Flashcards

1
Q

study of rock units’ three-dimensional distribution and deformation history.

A

structural geology

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2
Q

It specializes with understanding how rocks respond to tectonic forces, as well as the processes that cause formation to geologic structures like folds, faults, and joints.

A

structural geology

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3
Q

its objective is to understand the history of deformation in the Earth’s crust and predict the mechanical behavior of rocks under various stress conditions. Intense geologic activities occur at plate boundaries where plates move away from one another, past one another, or toward one another.

A

structural geology

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4
Q

is the idea that continents move freely over the earth’s surface, changing their positions relative to one another.

A

continental drift

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5
Q

he noted that geographic fit of continents e.g. Africa and South America, Atlantic formed by separation of Africa from South America, and speculates that earthquakes and flooding may have the separation possible.

A

Abraham Ortelius

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6
Q

he proposed supercontinent by studying fossils, rocks, mountains.

A

Seuss

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7
Q

proposed continental drift and Pangaea, and claimed that there used to be only one supergiant landmass where all continents came from.

A

Wegener and Taylor

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8
Q

suggested the idea of thermal convection as the driving force for the movement of continents.

A

Arthurs Holmes

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9
Q
  • Continents seem to fit together like pieces of a puzzle
A

Geographic Fit

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10
Q

Supporting Evidences of Continental Drift:

A

Fossils
Coal Seams
Mountains
Glacial Deposits

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11
Q

Similar distribution of ___________ such as Mesosaurus have been found in different regions and continents.

A

Fossils

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12
Q

Usually, coal is found in tropical areas because the climate is warm and ideal for the propagation of organisms. Coal would be found in polar regions such as North Pole and Antarctica.

A

coal seams

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13
Q

Usually, _____________is found in tropical areas because the climate is warm and ideal for the propagation of organisms. ___________would be found in polar regions such as North Pole and Antarctica.

A

coal
coal

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14
Q

Mountain ranges match across oceans (similar rock layers & rock types).

A

mountains

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15
Q

Places that are presently known to tropical and desert like such as Africa, Madagascar and India finding ice deposits would seem unreasonable if not for the concepts of drifting continents.

A

glacial deposits

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16
Q

is a hypothesis that the sea floors form at the crest of the mid-oceanic ridge, then move horizontally away from the ridge crest toward an oceanic trench.

A

Sea-floor Spreading

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17
Q

is a continuous process where tensional forces on both sides of plate cause them to constantly move apart.

A

Sea-floor Spreading

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18
Q

Sea-floor spreading suggests that the seafloor moves away from the mid-oceanic ridge as a result of _____________.

A

mantle convection

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19
Q

who developed sea-floor spreading

A

Harold Hess and Robert Dietz

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20
Q

is the sliding of the seafloor beneath a continent or island arc.

A

Subduction

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21
Q

Hess hypothesis was that seafloor spreading is driven by ___________________.

A

deep mantle convection.

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22
Q

is a circulation pattern driven by the rising of hot material and/or sinking of cold material.

A

Convection

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23
Q

In seafloor spreading, ____________ rises to the surface from the mantle. In time magma is cooled by seawater and forms the ____________ crust. New________________ created at the mid-ocean ridge and destroyed in deep ocean trenches.

A

magma
oceanic
sea floor

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24
Q

Supporting Evidence for Seafloor Spreading

A

World Seismicity
Volcanism
Age of Sea floor
Paleomagnetism
Heat flow

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25
Q

Earthquake distribution matches plate boundaries.

A

World Seismicity

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26
Q

Volcanoes match some plate boundaries; some are hot spots.

A

Volcanism

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27
Q

___________ Seafloor is at mid-ocean ridge; ________ sea floor away from mid-ocean ridge.

A

Youngest
oldest

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28
Q

___________ sea floor is continually being formed by basalt eruptions at the ridge crest. This basalt is then carried sideways by convection and is subducted in to the mantle at an oceanic trench.

A

New, young sea floor is continually being formed by basalt eruptions at the ridge crest. This basalt is then carried sideways by convection and is subducted in to the mantle at an oceanic trench.

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29
Q

___________ seafloor is continually being destroyed at trenches, while ________ sea floor is being formed at the ridge crest.

A

old new

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30
Q

old seafloor is continually being destroyed at _________ , while new sea floor is being formed at the ____________.

A

trenches
ridge crest

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31
Q

Because the ocean floor is mostly composed of basalt, an iron-rich substance containing minerals that align with the magnetic field, they record the alignment of the magnetic fields surrounding oceanic ridges.

A

paleomagnetism

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32
Q

Studies conducted with thermal probes, for example, indicate that the heat flow through bottom sediments is generally comparable to that through the continents except over the mid-ocean ridges, where at some sites the heat flow measures three to four times the normal value. The anomalously high values are considered to reflect the intrusion of molten material near the crests of the ridges.

A

Heat Flow

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33
Q

________________ combined ideas of continental drift and seafloor spreading into “Plate Tectonics”.

A

John Tuzo Wilson

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34
Q

It is the combined ideas of continental drift and seafloor spreading into

A

Plate Tectonics

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35
Q

is a large mobile slab of rock that is part of the Earth’s surface.

A

Plate

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36
Q

Its interior is inactive tectonically.

A

Plate

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37
Q

Plates interact with each other along their edges (_____________________) that has a high degree of tectonic activities which causes the geologic processes such as earthquakes, etc. Earth’s outermost layer composed of thin rigid plates moving horizontally.

A

(plate boundaries

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38
Q

is the rising of Earth’s crust to higher elevations.

A

Uplift

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39
Q

is the sinking of regions of Earth’s crust to lower elevations.

A

subsidence

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40
Q

Rocks that are uplifted _____ or ___________ be highly deformed.

A

may or may not

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41
Q

Rocks that subside ________ undergo deformation.

A

do not

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42
Q

There are three types of plate boundaries based on the movement.

A

Divergent Plate Boundary
Convergent Plate Boundary
Transform Plate Boundary

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43
Q

is boundary between plates that are moving apart, creating new crust.

A

Divergent Plate Boundary

44
Q

These boundaries are typically found along mid-ocean ridges, where seafloor spreading occurs. As the plates separate, magma rises from below to fill the gap, creating new oceanic crust.

A

Divergent Plate Boundary

45
Q

lies between plates that are moving toward each other.

A

Convergent Plate Boundary

46
Q

At these boundaries, plates collide.

A

Convergent Plate Boundary

47
Q

When two plates of different densities meet (for example, an oceanic and a continental plate), the denser plate is forced beneath the lighter one in a process called ______________.

A

subduction

48
Q

This leads to the formation of deep ocean trenches and volcanic mountain chains.

A

Convergent Plate Boundary

49
Q

In the case of two continental plates colliding, ________________s like the Himalayas are formed.

A

massive mountain range

50
Q

is where one plate dives or subducts under the other.

A

ocean to ocean convergence

51
Q

is where the dense oceanic plates under the continental plate. Forms an active continental margin between the trench and the continent.

A

ocean to continent convergence

52
Q

is where the plates collide and crumble but neither is subducted.

A

continent to continent convergence

53
Q

is at which two plates move horizontally or laterally past each other.

A

transform plate boundary

54
Q

In transform plate boundary, __________ is neither created nor destroyed.

A

Crust

55
Q

Most common type of transform fault occurs on fracture zones and connects two divergent plate boundaries. These boundaries are characterized by ___________ faults and can generate significant earthquakes, as seen along the San Andreas Fault in California.

A

strike-slip

56
Q

These are forces that tends to move or change the orientation of the plate (along earth’s crust)

A

tectonic forces

57
Q

Deep within the Earth’s crust, rocks are constantly being squeezed, stretched, and sheared. This process is known as ______________, and it is driven by forces that cause rocks to bend, break, or flow.

A

rock deformation

58
Q

When studying rock deformation, geologist typically refer to ___________ , a force per unit area or the force applied to a material, divided by the area over which it is applied.

A

stress

59
Q

stress produces ___________ which is when there’s a change in size (volume), shape, or both while an object is undergoing stress.

A

strain

60
Q

3 kinds of stress

A

tensional stress
compressive stress
shear stress

61
Q

caused by forces pulling away from one another from opposite directions. It causes stretching or extensional strain.

A

tensional stress

62
Q

It is common at divergent boundaries, where tectonic plates are moving away from each other.

A

tensional stress

63
Q

causes rocks to become thinner and can lead to the formation of normal faults.

A

tensional stress

64
Q

caused by forces pushing or squeezing towards one another in an opposite direction.

A

compressive stress

65
Q

It causes shortening strain.

A

compressive stress

66
Q

It occurs at convergent boundaries, where plates collide

A

compressive

67
Q

results in the thickening of the crust and the formation of mountains, as well as the development of reverse faults.

A

compressive

68
Q

due to movement parallel to but in opposite directions along a fault or other boundary.

A

shear stress

69
Q

It causes shear strain. It is most commonly found at transform boundaries, where plates move laterally.

A

shear stress

70
Q

This type of stress can result in strike-slip faults.

A

shear stress

71
Q

Behaviors of Rocks to Stress and Strain

A

elastic
ductile
brittle

72
Q

is if the deformed body recovers its original shape after the stress is reduced or removed.

A

elastic

73
Q

is the maximum stress or force per unit area within a solid material that can arise before the onset of permanent deformation.

A

elastic limit

74
Q

is if it bends while under stress and does not return to its original shape after relaxation of the stress

A

ductile

75
Q

Are folds elastic, ductile, or brittle?

A

ductile

76
Q

This type of deformation occurs at higher temperatures and pressures, deep within the Earth.

A

ductile

77
Q

is if it breaks or creates a fracture at stresses higher than its elastic limit

A

brittle

78
Q

Are faults elastic, ductile, or brittle?

A

brittle

79
Q

Are joints elastic, ductile, or brittle?

A

brittle

80
Q

This type of deformation is typical of rocks in the upper crust, where temperatures are lower and rocks are more rigid.

A

brittle

81
Q

are natural breaks or cracks in rocks, often occurring due to tectonic stresses or rock deformation

A

fractures

82
Q

are fractures without significant displacement.

A

joints

83
Q

formed when tension and compression associated with plate movement is so great that blocks of rock fracture or break apart

A

faults

84
Q

______________ of a non-horizontal bed, is the compass orientation of a line formed by the intersection of an imaginary horizontal plane with the inclined bedding plane.

A

strike

85
Q

___________________of the inclined rock layer is the angle between the imaginary horizontal plane and the inclined rock layer.

A

Dip

86
Q

It is formed from movement of rock along the dip of the fault plane.

A

Dip-slip Faults:

87
Q

3 types of dip=slip faults

A

normal fault
reverse fault
thrust fault

88
Q

forms when the hanging-wall rock moves downward compared to the footwall. This occurs when rocks move away from each other due to the land moving apart.

A

normal fault

89
Q

is formed if the hanging wall moves up along a dip-slip fault compared to the footwall and if the fault dips at an angle steeper than 45 degrees.

A

reverse fault

90
Q

is formed if the fault dips at an angle less than 45 degrees.

A

thrust fault

91
Q

It is formed by horizontal movement along the strike direction of the fault plane.

A

strike-slip fault

92
Q

forms if features appear shifted to the left from one side of the fault to the other.

A

Left-lateral Strike-slip Fault

93
Q

forms if features shift to the right across the fault.

A

Right-lateral Strike-slip Fault

94
Q

It is a combination of dip-slip and strike-slip movements in which diagonal motion occurs along the fault plane, both along the strike and dip.

A

Oblique-slip Faults:

95
Q

is formed when two normal faults occur parallel to each other and the land sinks between the faults.

A

Rift Valley or Graben

96
Q

is the opposite of a rift valley where the land between the parallel faults is forced upward because the two faults are being pushed together.

A

Horst

97
Q

Graben or Horst?
Compressive and forced upward

A

Horst

98
Q

Graben or Horst?
Tensional and sinks in

A

Graben

99
Q

are bends or wave like features in layered rock. It occurs with convergent or compression motion.

A

folds

100
Q

. It is usually strained in a ductile way than elastic or brittle strain.

A

folds

101
Q

are arched folds where limbs dip away from the hinge line.

A

ANTICLINES

102
Q

Oldest rocks are exposed along the hinge line.

A

anticlines

103
Q

are trough-shaped folds where limbs dip toward the hinge line.

A

syncline

104
Q

Younger rocks are exposed along the hinge line.

A

syncline

105
Q

is a type of fold in which limbs are parallel to each other, implies intense compressive stress.

A

isoclinal folds

106
Q

is a type of fold in which upper limb of the fold override the lower limb that implies unequal compressive and/or shear stress.

A

overturned fold

107
Q

is a type of fold that are overturned to such an extent that the limbs are essentially horizontal and indicates compressive and/or shearing stress is more intense in one direction.

A

recumbent folds

1 Reservoir Geosciences (6 decks)

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