Chapter 3

Question 1

There are two categories of geologic processes: __________ (external) and __________ (internal).

Answer 1

exogenous
endogenous

Question 2

takes place within or in the interior of Earth. Thermal energy of the mantle and crust is it’s driving force.

Answer 2

endogenous processes

Question 3

geologic process that is driven by thermal energy

Answer 3

endogenous process

Question 4

These processes are responsible for earthquakes, and movements related to Earth’s crust.

Answer 4

endogenous processes

Question 5

Creates relief and responsible with large scale landform building and transforming processes.

Answer 5

endogenous processes

Question 6

occur on or near the surface of Earth. They are usually influenced or driven by gravity, water, wind or organism.

Answer 6

exogenous processes

Question 7

Types of exogenous process are

Answer 7

Weathering, Erosion, Mass wasting, and Sedimentation.

Question 8

Igneous Processes
______________ - Volcanic Eruptions
______________ - Igneous intrusions

Tectonic Processes
_____________ - anticlines and synclines
_____________ - rift valleys, graben, escarpment

Answer 8

Igneous Processes
Volcanism - Volcanic Eruptions
Plutonism - Igneous intrusions

Tectonic Processes
Folding - anticlines and synclines
Faulting - rift valleys, graben, escarpment

Question 9

result from rapid rock deformation that is accompanied by violent shaking

Answer 9

earthquake

Question 10

is the process by which rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller particles by various physical, chemical, and biological mechanisms.

Answer 10

weathering

Question 11

It affects the composition, texture, and distribution of sediments that ultimately contribute to the formation of sedimentary rocks and depositional systems.

Answer 11

weathering

Question 12

it is the disintegration of rocks, soil, and minerals, together with other materials through contact with Earth’s subsystems.

Answer 12

Weathering

Question 13

Types of weathering

Answer 13

physical (mechanical) weathering
chemical weathering
biological weathering

Question 14

The breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition or breakdown of rocks by mechanical forces concentrated along rock fractures.

Answer 14

physical (mechanical) weathering

Question 15

Water enters cracks in rocks, freezes, expands, and eventually causes the rock to break apart.

Answer 15

frost wedging

Question 16

Repeated heating and cooling of rocks cause them to expand and contract, leading to fracture.

Answer 16

thermal expansion

Question 17

rocks and sediment grind against each other, wearing down surfaces.

Answer 17

abrasion

Question 18

Layers of rock peel away due to pressure release or thermal stress.

Answer 18

exfoliation

Question 19

as the salt crystals grow, they apply pressure to the surrounding rock weakening it, until it eventually cracks and breaks down.

Answer 19

salt wedging

Question 20

process in which pressure in a rock is released (unloading) along parallel alignments (sheet joints) near the surface of the bedrock

Answer 20

exfoliation

Question 21

The breakdown of rocks through chemical reactions that alter the mineral composition. Rock decomposes, dissolves, alters, or weakens the rock through chemical processes to form residual materials. Process by which rocks break down by chemical reactions.

Answer 21

chemical weathering

Question 22

Water reacts with minerals to form new minerals and soluble salts. A chemical reaction between H+ and OH ions in water and the minerals in the rock.

Answer 22

Hydrolysis

Question 23

Oxygen reacts with minerals, particularly iron, to form oxides, which can weaken the rock. Accelerates rock decay, rendering it more vulnerable to other forms of weathering.

Answer 23

Oxidation

Question 24

Process by which carbon dioxide and water chemically react to produce carbonic acid, a weak acid, that reacts with carbonate minerals in the rock. It occurs with limestone or dolomite rocks and produces very fine, clayey particles.

Answer 24

Carbonation

Question 25

Minerals dissolve directly into water, especially those susceptible to acids.

Answer 25

solution

Question 26

a process where mineral structure in the rock forms a weak bond with H2O

Answer 26

hydration

Question 27

the disintegration or decay of rocks and minerals caused by chemical or physical agents of organisms.

Answer 27

biological weathering

Question 28

(presence of organism) The breakdown of rocks by biological activities. the disintegration or decay of rocks and minerals caused by chemical or physical agents of organisms. Happens by: organic activity from lichen and algae, rock disintegration by plant growth, burrowing and tunneling organisms, and secretion of acids.

Answer 28

Biological weathering

Question 29

Plant roots grow into cracks in rocks, expanding and causing the rock to break apart.

Answer 29

root expansion

Question 30

These organisms produce acids that chemically weather rocks.

Answer 30

lichen and moss

Question 31

Burrowing animals and other organisms disturb the rock structure, leading to mechanical breakdown.

Answer 31

animal activity

Question 32

is the process by which Earth's surface is worn away by wind, water or ice.

Answer 32

erosion

Question 33

It takes place when there is rainfall, surface runoff, flowing rivers, seawater intrusion, flooding, freezing and thawing, hurricanes, wind, etc.

Answer 33

erosion

Question 34

Agents of Erosion

Answer 34

water wind ice gravity (mass wasting)

Question 35

__________: Rivers, streams, and rain can erode rocks and soil, carrying them downstream. ____________: can transport fine particles over long distances, particularly in arid regions. __________: Glaciers can erode large amounts of rock and soil as they move. ____________: Landslides and rockfalls result from gravity pulling loose material downslope.

Answer 35

Water Wind Ice Gravity (Mass Wasting)

Question 36

Buried ancient erosional surfaces are called ______________

Answer 36

unconformities

Question 37

Two types of unconformities

Answer 37

disconformities angular unconformities

Question 38

is the movement of eroded material from one place to another. It is a key phase in the process of erosion, where particles that have been eroded from their original location are moved to a new area by natural forces.

Answer 38

transportation

Question 39

Mechanism of sediment transportation

Answer 39

suspension saltation traction solution

Question 40

is where fine particles like silt and clay are carried in the water column

Answer 40

suspension

Question 41

is where small pebbles and sand grains are bounced along the bed of a river or by the wind

Answer 41

saltation

Question 42

is where larger rocks and boulders are rolled along the ground by water, wind, or ice

Answer 42

traction

Question 43

is where dissolved minerals are transported in waters

Answer 43

solution

Question 44

the grinding away of sharp edges and corners of rock fragments during transportation. It occurs in sand and gravel as rivers, glaciers, or waves cause particles to hit and scrape to one another or against a rock surface.

Answer 44

rounding

Question 45

process by which sediment grains are selected and separated according to grain size by the agents of transportation (wind, running water)

Answer 45

sorting

Question 46

Sediments are considered as ___________ when the grains are nearly all the same size.

Answer 46

well-sorted

Question 47

Once sediments are transported, they are eventually _____________ when the energy of the transporting medium decreases. This can occur in various environments, such as riverbeds, lakes, ocean floors, deserts, or at the base of slopes. The deposited sediments can later form sedimentary rocks through compaction and cementation over geological timescales.

Answer 47

deposited

Question 48

is the process by which transported material is laid down or settles in a new location.

Answer 48

deposition

Question 49

location in which deposition occurs

Answer 49

environment of deposition

Question 50

Deposition Examples: - _________________: Sediments are deposited at the mouth of a river as it enters a slower-moving body of water. - _________________: Wind deposits sand in mounds or ridges. - __________________: Rocks and debris carried by glaciers are deposited as the glacier retreats.

Answer 50

Deposition Examples: - River Deltas: Sediments are deposited at the mouth of a river as it enters a slower-moving body of water. - Sand Dunes: Wind deposits sand in mounds or ridges. - Glacial Moraines: Rocks and debris carried by glaciers are deposited as the glacier retreats.

Question 51

is the general term for a group of processes that convert loose sediment into sedimentary rock.

Answer 51

lithification

Question 52

is the process that packs loose sediment grains tightly together due to increasing weight of overburden, resulting to reduction of open pore space

Answer 52

compaction

Question 53

is a process in which the precipitation of solid material around sediment grains binds them into a firm, coherent rock, resulting in further reduction of open pore spaces

Answer 53

cementation

Question 54

what is the solid material that precipitates around sediment grains

Answer 54

cement

Question 55

are physical features within sedimentary rocks that form during or shortly after sediment deposition.

Answer 55

sedimentary structures

Question 56

These structures provide valuable insights into the environmental conditions prevailing at the time of deposition. These structures are critical to reservoir studies because they provide insights into the depositional environment, which in turn influences the reservoir's porosity, permeability, and overall quality.

Answer 56

sedimentary structures

Question 57

It may also reveal the original stratigraphic top, or upward direction of deposition which helps geologist unravel the geometry of rocks that have been folded or faulted in tectonically active regions.

Answer 57

sedimentary structures

Question 58

two main categories of sedimentary structures

Answer 58

inorganic sedimentary structures organic sedimentary structures

Question 59

These are formed by physical or chemical processes without the direct involvement of biological activity.

Answer 59

inorganic sedimentary structures

Question 60

different inorganic sedimentary structures

Answer 60

bed forms and surface markings internal bedding structures sole marks

Question 61

These are features which form on the surface of a bed of sediment

Answer 61

bed forms and surface markings

Question 62

At the time of formation, the "surface of a bed" is equivalent to the sea floor, or the bottom of a lake or river, for example. In a sequence of sedimentary rock, bed forms and surface markings are found on bedding planes.

Answer 62

bed forms and surface markings

Question 63

different bed forms and surface markings

Answer 63

ripple marks mud cracks

Question 64

Small, wave-like structures formed by water or wind movement. These are undulations of the sediment surface produced as wind or water moves across sand.

Answer 64

ripple marks

Question 65

These are undulations of the sediment surface produced as wind or water moves across sand.

Answer 65

ripple

Question 66

ripples which form in unidirectional currents (such as in streams or rivers). Crests of asymmetrical ripples may be straight, sinuous, or lobe-like (lingoid ripples), depending on water velocity.

Answer 66

asymmetrical ripples

Question 67

produced in waves or oscillating water. Crests of symmetrical ripples tend to be relatively straight, but may bifurcate (or fork).

Answer 67

symmetrical ripples

Question 68

Crests of these ripples may be straight, sinuous, or lobe-like (lingoid ripples), depending on water velocity.

Answer 68

assymetrical

Question 69

Crests of these ripples tend to be relatively straight, but may bifurcate (or fork).

Answer 69

symmetrical ripples

Question 70

Polygonal cracks formed in drying mud, indicating subaerial exposure. The mud polygons between the cracks may be broken up later by water movement, and redeposited as intraclasts (particularly ir. lime muds).

Answer 70

mud cracks

Question 71

Stratification (or layering) is the most obvious feature of sedimentary rocks. The layers (or strata) are visible because of differences in the color or texture of adjacent beds.

Answer 71

Internal Bedding structures

Question 72

__________________ is the most obvious feature of sedimentary rocks. The ________________ are visible because of differences in the color or texture of adjacent beds.

Answer 72

Stratification (or layering) layers (or strata)

Question 73

Strata thicker than 1 cm are commonly referred to as _________; thinner layers are called____________ or ___________; the upper and lower surfaces of these layers are called _____________.

Answer 73

beds laminations or laminae bedding planes

Question 74

Most bedding is ____________ because the sediments from which the sedimentary rocks formed were originally deposited as horizontal layers.

Answer 74

horizontal

Question 75

It is the result when a sediment-laden current (such as a turbidity current) begins to slow down. The grain size within a graded bed ranges from coarser at the bottom to finer at the top. Hence, graded beds may be used as "up indicators".

Answer 75

graded bedding

Question 76

If the individual inclined layers are thicker than 1 cm, the cross-stratification may be referred to as cross-bedding. Thinner inclined layering is called cross-lamination.

Answer 76

cross bedding

Question 77

If the individual inclined layers are thicker than 1 cm, the cross-stratification may be referred to as ________________. Thinner inclined layering is called ____________.

Answer 77

cross-bedding cross-lamination

Question 78

These are bedding plane structures preserved on the bottom surfaces of beds. They generally result from the filling in of impressions made into the surface of soft mud by the scouring action of the current, or by the impacts of objects carried by the current.

Answer 78

sole marks

Question 79

Produced as "tools" (objects such as sticks, shells, bones, or pebbles) carried by a current bounce, skip, roll, or drag along the sediment surface. They are commonly preserved on the lower surfaces of sandstone beds as thin ridges. are generally aligned parallel to the direction of current movement.

Answer 79

Tool marks

Question 80

Produced by erosion or scouring of muddy sediment, forming "scoop-shaped" depressions. They are commonly preserved as bulbous or mammillary natural casts on the bottoms of sandstone beds. Because of their geometry, can be used to determine paleocurrent directions.

Answer 80

flute marks (also called flute casts)

Question 81

These structures result from the activities of living organisms, including both direct and indirect biological processes. The organisms may be animals which walk on or burrow into the sediment, they may be plants with roots which penetrate the sediment, or they may be bacterial colonies which trap and bind the sediment to produce layered structures.

Answer 81

organic sedimentary structures

Question 82

Disruption of sedimentary layers by organisms such as burrowing animals, leading to a mixed or homogenized sediment.

Answer 82

bioturbation

Question 83

Indications of biological activity, such as footprints, burrows, or feeding marks preserved in sediment.

Answer 83

trace fossils

Question 84

Organic buildup of skeletal material from corals or other marine organisms, creating significant depositional features.

Answer 84

reef structures