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1 Reservoir Geosciences > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

1
Q

branch of geology focused on understanding the materials and processes that shape the Earth’s structure and surface.

A

Physical Geology

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2
Q

It encompasses the study of rocks, minerals, and landforms, and investigates the physical processes driving geological change.

A

Physical Geology

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3
Q

Earth’s Structure: Layers of the Earth

A

Crust
Mantle
Core

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4
Q

Thicker (about 30-70 km) and less dense. Composed mainly of granitic rocks.

A

Continental Crust

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5
Q

Continental Crust: Thicker (about __-__ km) and less dense than oceanic crust. Composed mainly of __________ rocks.

A

30-70 km
granitic

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6
Q

Thinner (about 5-10 km) and denser. Composed primarily of basaltic rocks.

A

Oceanic Crust

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7
Q

Oceanic Crust: Thinner (about _-__km) and denser than continental crust. Composed primarily of ________ rocks.

A

5-10
basaltic

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8
Q

Extends to about 410 km below the surface. Includes the lithosphere (rigid outer layer) and the asthenosphere (partially molten and ductile layer).

A

upper mantle

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9
Q

Upper Mantle: Extends to about ____ km below the surface. Includes the _______ (rigid outer layer) and the _________ (partially molten and ductile layer).

A

410
lithosphere
asthenosphere

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10
Q

Extends from 410 km to about 2,900 km. Composed of more solid, high-pressure minerals like perovskite and ferropericlase.

A

Lower Mantle

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11
Q

Lower Mantle: Extends from _____km to about __________km. Composed of more solid,_________ minerals like perovskite and ferropericlase.

A

410
2,900
high-pressure

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12
Q

Liquid layer extending from about 2,900 km to 5,150 km.

A

Outer Core

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13
Q

Composed mainly of iron and nickel, and is responsible for Earth’s magnetic field.

A

Outer Core

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14
Q

Solid layer at the center of the Earth, extending from 5,150 km to about 6,371 km.

A

Inner Core

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15
Q

Composed primarily of iron and nickel and remains solid due to immense pressure.

A

Inner Core

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16
Q

are fundamental components of Earth’s materials, playing a crucial role in the composition, structure, and processes of the planet. They are naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a specific chemical composition and a crystalline structure.

A

Minerals

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17
Q

are naturally occurring, meaning they form through natural geological processes without human intervention.

A

Minerals

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18
Q

They are inorganic, composed of elements and compounds not associated with biological life.

A

Minerals

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19
Q

They are solid at room temperature and have a crystalline structure, which means they have an internal atomic arrangement that forms a crystal lattice, giving them specific shapes and physical properties. Each mineral has a defined chemical formula that can vary slightly due to impurities or substitutions.

A

Minerals

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20
Q

Many minerals come from ___________, the molten rock beneath the Earth’s surface. When magma ________, mineral crystals are formed. How and where magma cools determine the _______of the mineral crystals.

A

magma
cool
size

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21
Q

molten rock beneath the Earth’s surface

A

magma

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22
Q

When magma cools slowly beneath the Earth’s crust, __________crystals form.

A

large

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23
Q

When magma cools rapidly beneath the Earth’s surface, ________ crystals form.

A

small

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24
Q

earth’s crust and slowly = _________
earth’s surface and rapidly =________

A

large
small

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25
Q

Crystals may also form from compounds dissolved in a liquid such as water.

A

Evaporation

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26
Q

When the liquid _________, or changes to a gas, it leaves behind the minerals as crystals. Halite, or rock salt, forms in this way.

A

evaporates

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27
Q

are the most abundant mineral group, characterized by the presence of silicon and oxygen.

A

silicates

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28
Q

composed of silicon and oxygen, is a major component of many rocks, and is known for its hardness and resistance to weathering.

A

quartz

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29
Q

is a group of minerals containing aluminum silicates, including orthoclase and plagioclase, which are important in granite and other igneous rocks.

A

feldspar

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30
Q

is a group of silicate minerals with a layered structure, including muscovite and biotite, known for their cleavage and use in electrical insulators.

A

mica

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31
Q

are minerals containing carbonate ions (CO₃²⁻). Common examples include calcite (CaCO₃) and dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂).

A

carbonate

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32
Q

found in limestone and marble, plays a significant role in the carbon cycle and is used as a building material.

A

calcite

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33
Q

are minerals where oxygen is combined with one or more metals. Examples include hematite (Fe₂0₃) and magnetite (Fe₃O₄).

A

oxides

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34
Q

is an iron oxide that is a primary ore of iron and is used in pigments and various industrial applications.

A

hematite

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35
Q

are minerals containing sulfur combined with metals.

A

sulfide

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36
Q

often referred to as “fool’s gold,” is an iron sulfide mineral with a metallic luster and is used in the production of sulfuric acid.

A

pyrite

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37
Q

are minerals that contain halogen elements like fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine.

A

halides

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38
Q

commonly known as rock salt, is used for road de-icing and as a seasoning in food.

A

halite

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39
Q

are minerals composed of a single element.

A

native element

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40
Q

a native metal, is used in jewelry, electronics, and as a financial asset.

A

gold

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41
Q

Minerals containing silicon and oxygen (e.g., quartz, feldspar, mica).

A

silicate

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42
Q

Minerals containing carbon and oxygen (e.g., calcite, dolomite).

A

carbonate

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43
Q

Minerals where oxygen is combined with metal elements (e.g., hematite, magnetite).

A

oxides

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44
Q

physical properties of minerals

A

density
luster
cleavage
color
streak
fracture
hardness

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45
Q

measure of the mass of a material divided by its volume. Relates to the composition of the mineral and to the patter in which the mineral’s atoms are arranged.

A

density

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46
Q

Example: Galena has a high density (specific gravity of around 7.5), making it much heavier than minerals with similar colors like Pyrite, which has a specific gravity of around 5.

A

density

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47
Q

is the term used to describe how mineral surfaces reflect light and can be categorized as metallic, vitreous, pearly, etc.

A

luster

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48
Q

Example: Pyrite has a metallic luster and a golden-yellow color, often mistaken for gold.
In contrast, Talc has a pearly luster and is greasy to the touch.

A

luster

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49
Q

refers to the flat, smooth planes along which some minerals break and also to the shape of the resulting fragments.

A

cleavage

50
Q

Example: Mica exhibits perfect cleavage in one direction, allowing it to split into thin, flexible sheets. Halite has cubic cleavage, breaking into cubic pieces.

A

cleavage

51
Q

refers to the hue of a mineral which can vary due to impurities and exposure to environmental factors.

A

color

52
Q

Example: Quartz can appear in various colors, including clear (rock crystal), purple (amethyst), and pink (rose quartz), depending on the presence of trace elements or inclusions.

A

color

53
Q

is the color of the residue produced by scratching a mineral on a non-glazed porcelain plate.

A

streak

54
Q

Different specimens of the same mineral may vary in color, but the streak color is always the _______.

A

same

55
Q

is the tendency of mineral breaks unevenly or irregularly.

A

fracture

56
Q

Example: Quartz typically exhibits a conchoidal fracture, with smooth, curved surfaces. Olivine often has a granular or uneven fracture.

A

fracture

57
Q

measures a mineral’s resistance to scratching, often assessed using Mohs scale (e.g., talc is 1, diamond is 10).

A

hardness

58
Q

a German mineralogist, worked out a scale of hardness.

A

Friedrich Mohs

59
Q

is relative and allows geologists to rank minerals according to their hardness; it is not an absolute scale.

A

The Mohs scale

60
Q

In the Moh’s Scale, since Quartz is harder than Calcite, ___________leaves powder resdue.

A

Calcite

61
Q

are fundamental to understanding geology, as they are the Earth’s building blocks and provide insights into geological processes, history, and resource management.

A

rocks

62
Q

are naturally occurring aggregates of one or more minerals, mineraloids, or organic materials. They form through various geological processes and are categorized based on their origin and composition.

A

rocks

63
Q

rocks vs minerals: which is organic and inorganic?

A

minerals = inorganic
rocks = organic

64
Q

are formed from the cooling and solidification of molten magma or lava.

A

igneous rocks

65
Q

Texture of these rocks can range from coarse-grained (granite) to fine-grained (basalt), depending on the cooling rate.

A

igneous rocks

66
Q

two types of igneous rocks

A

intrusive (plutonic) rocks
extrusive (volcanic) rocks

67
Q

Formed from magma that cools slowly beneath the Earth’s surface, allowing crystals to grow

A

Intrusive (plutonic) rocks

68
Q

Formed from lava that cools quickly at the Earth’s surface, resulting in smaller crystals.

A

extrusive (volcanic) rocks

69
Q

In Igneous rocks:
___________= magma cools slowly, larger crystals
___________= lava cools quickly, smaller crystals

A

intrusive (plutonic)
extrusive (volcanic)

70
Q

rocks that consist mostly of silicate minerals

A

igneous rocks

71
Q

Igneous rocks four basic types of textures

A

glassy
fine-grained (basalt)
course-grained (granite)
porphyritic

72
Q

formed from the accumulation and compaction of sediments or from the precipitation of minerals from water.

A

sedimentary rocks

73
Q

Often have a layered or stratified appearance due to the accumulation of sediments. Mineral composition includes minerals like calcite, gypsum, and various clays

A

sedimentary rocks

74
Q

breakdown of older rocks under the conditions found in Earth’s surface environment.

A

sedimentary rocks

75
Q

Rocks of any kind, when exposed at Earth’s surface, slowly deteriorate due to the processes of ________________

A

weathering

76
Q

most abundant sedimentary rock

A

limestone

77
Q

three types of sedimentary rocks:

A

clastic rocks
chemical rocks
organic rocks

78
Q

Composed of fragments of other rocks or minerals that have been cemented together. Examples include sanstone (from sand-sized particles) and shale (from clay-sized particles).

A

clastic rocks

79
Q

Formed from the evaporation of water and subsequent precipitation of minerals. Formed when a sea or lake dries up, leaving large amounts of minerals that were dissolved in water. (Ex.: Rock salt and gypsum)

A

chemical rocks

80
Q

Formed from the accumulation of organic materials such as plant debris. Examples include coal (from plant material) and oil shale (from organic-rich sediment). Limestones are often but not always organic rocks. Deposits of limestone may be formed from the shells of creatures when they die.

A

organic rocks

81
Q

three types of sediments

A

(clastic sediments
organic sediments
crystalline sediments)

82
Q

whole particles formed by the breakdown of rocks and were transported and deposited as whole particles

A

clastic sediments

83
Q

sediments that are formed biologically such as seashells

A

organic sediments

84
Q

sediments that are formed by precipitation of salt out of water

A

crystalline sediments

85
Q

are the rocks that are drilled to find gas and oil. They are the source and reservoir rocks for gas and oil.

A

sedimentary rocks

86
Q

process that bonds the loose grains into a solid sedimentary rock. The most common cement is the mineral calcite.

A

natural cementation

87
Q

sedimentary rocks often consist of three parts when examined under a microscope:
- sediment ___________
- ____________ ___________ that bonds the grains
- spaces called ____________that is usually filled with fluids

A
  • sediment grains
  • natural cement that bonds the grains
  • spaces called pores that is usually filled with fluids
88
Q

rocks that are
made of the fragments of
previously existing rocks

A

clastic rocks

89
Q

clastic rocks classification according to size and shape

A

conglomerate
sandstone
shale

90
Q

made of rounded pebbles cemented together
clay, mud or sand and make up 1/3 of the rock. The pebbles
conglomerates are smooth and rounded because they have been
worn down by the action of water.

A

conglomerate

91
Q

rocks made of small and fine grains are called
____________. At least half the particles in a clastic rock must be sand
sized in order for it to be considered a sandstone. In a sandstone,
the grains are cemented together by minerals such as quartz, calcite
and hematite, that harden.

A

sandstones

92
Q

describe all the clastic rocks that are made of particles
smaller than sand. It forms from small particles of mud and clay
that settle to the bottom of quiet bodies of water such as swamps.

A

shale

93
Q

come from organisms. (ex. coal)

A

organic rocks

94
Q

T or F
Limestone are often but not always organic rocks. Deposits of
limestone may be formed from the shells of creatures when they die.

A

T

95
Q

T or F
Limestone are always organic rocks. Deposits of
limestone may be formed from the shells of creatures when they die.

A

F

96
Q

water precipitates two ways to form
_______ sedimentary rocks; by the process of evaporation and through
the life processes of marine organism.

A

chemical sedimentary rocsk

97
Q

Formed when a sea or lake dries up, leaving large amounts - of
minerals that were dissolved in water. (Ex.: Rock salt and
gypsum)

A

chemical sedimentary rocks

98
Q

In chemical sedimentary rocks:
Halite and gypsum are examples of ________________.
________________ - Chert, jasper and flint all form from silica that is left
behind when water evaporates.

A

evaporites
silicates

99
Q

-rock is often classified according to the grain size.
-the size of the grains controls the size of the _______ ________ and the quality of the oil or gas reservoir
-Larger grains have _________pores between them. It is ___________ for fluids, such as gas and oil, to flow through larger pores and into a well
- ____________ grains in sedimentary rocks are classified by their diameters in
millimeters

A

pore spaces
larger
easier
clastic

100
Q

is an important clue as to how a sedimentary
rock was formed.

A

lithology (rock composition)

101
Q

Sedimentary structures such as ___________, _________, and ______________
help to visualize the environment in which the rock was deposited.

A

Sedimentary structures such as ripple marks, mud cracks, and flow marks
help to visualize the environment in which the rock was deposited.

102
Q

Sedimentary rocks are most readily recognized from a distance by their distinctive layering, called _____________.
It is caused by the deposition of different sedimentary materials, one layer above the other.

A

Sedimentary rocks are most readily recognized from a distance by their distinctive layering, called bedding. Bedding is caused by the deposition of different sedimentary materials, one layer above the other.

103
Q

come from Greek word meta means change and morphe means form and a result from changes to pre-existing rocks; these changes occur when the minerals that compose the rock are changed or rearranged or both.

A

metamorphic rocks

104
Q

It is formed from the alteration of preexisting rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks) through heat, pressure, and/or chemical processes.

A

metamorphic rocks

105
Q

The changes typically occur at temperatures in excess of 200°C, which distinguishes _________________ rocks from the lower-temperature weathering and lithification processes that form sedimentary rocks.

A

metamorphic

106
Q

Distinguished from igneous rocks because the temperatures that change the former are not high enough to cause the rock to melt.

A

metamorphic rocks

107
Q

the changing of one type of rock into another as a result of heat, pressure, and chemical reactions

A

metamorphism

108
Q

new minerals form and align perpendicular to the applied pressure if present

A

metamorphism

109
Q

Have a layered or banded appearance due to the alignment of mineral grains under pressure. Examples include schist and slate.

A

foliated rocks

110
Q

the mineral crystals are arranged in parallel

A

foliated rocks

111
Q

Do not exhibit layering and are often formed from rocks that do not have a significant alignment of mineral grains. Examples include marble (from limestone) and quartzite (from sandstone).

A

non-foliated rocks

112
Q

the rocks are not banded and do not break into layers

A

unfoliated rocks

113
Q

is described by salt content in parts per thousand (ppt).

A

groundwater

114
Q

contains so little salt (0-1 ppt) that it can be used for drinking water,

A

freshwater

115
Q

are subsurface waters that contain more salt than seawater (35-300 ppt)

A

brines

116
Q

are mixtures of freshwaters and brines (1-35 ppt).

A

brackish waters

117
Q

is the natural, continuous process that forms, breaks down, and reforms rock through geological, chemical, and physical processes.

A

rock cycle

118
Q

a sequence of processes and products that relate each rock type to the others and that describes rocks as continuously forming from preexisting rocks.

A

rock cycle

119
Q

is a continuous process through which rocks transform from one type to another over geological time scalts. Molten rock called magma is the source material for rocks.

A

rock cycle

120
Q

_________ rocks form both under the surface and above it when magma becomes lava. Heat and pressure changes igneous and sedimentary rocks into __________rocks. Erosion and weathering break igneous and sedimentary rocks up, which compact into sedimentary rocks.

Sediments from organic sources also contribute to sedimentary rocks. ___________ forces drive some rocks back below the surface, where they can change forms or melt and become magma once again.

A

igneous
metamorphic
tectonic

120
Q

Importance of Rocks and Minerals in Reservoir Studies
______________________. Understanding the different types of rocks and their properties aids in finding probable reservoir rocks that have the suitable porosity and permeability for oil and gas accumulation.

_________________. Detailed rock classification helps develop accurate geological maps and models, which are crucial for exploration and production planning.

_________________. Accurate categorization and analysis of rock types and qualities is critical when estimating the size and potential output of hydrocarbon reserves.

______________________. Knowledge of rock types aids in the selection of optimal extraction and enhanced oil recovery techniques, which are suited to the reservoir rocks’ individual features.

______________________. Understanding the geology and mineralogy of a location assists in appraising the environment.

A

Identification of Reservoir Rocks
Geological mapping.
Resource estimation
Production techniques
Environmental considerations

1 Reservoir Geosciences (6 decks)

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