Chapter 4

Question 1

scaling

Answer 1

the importance of size

Question 2

gravity

Answer 2

becomes more important to larger animal
-surface forces important to small animals
-difference in size impacts the structure and performance of an animal… because of basic geometry

Question 3

length/surface area/volume

Answer 3

cube that is doubled in length will have a larger proportional change in surface area and volume

Question 4

small animals

Answer 4

high oxygen consumption per unit mass
-high heat loss- because of high area: volume ratio
-high metabolic rate (lots of heat produced)
-low mass requires delicate bones

Question 5

large animals

Answer 5

lower oxygen consumption
-lower metabolic rate
-lower heat loss- low area: volume ratio
-high mass requires heavy bones
-allometric growth of body

Question 6

biomechanics

Answer 6

use of engineering and physical concepts to understand biological design

Question 7

body movement

Answer 7

system of bones and muscle acts as a machine
-mechanical device used to transfer force
-muscles generate force/ bones apply force
bones act as a system of levers. muscles apply torque (turning forces) to the lever arms (l0, li)

Question 8

hydrodynamics/aerodynamics

Answer 8

body moving through a fluid produces drag
-aquatic vertebrates have evolved to minimize friction (at the boundary layer) and turbulence
-smooth surface. reduces friction drag. use mucous and sclaes
-streamlined shape. reduces pressure drag. shape reduces turbulence

Question 9

drag

Answer 9

resisting force that acts in the opposite direction the body is moving
-due to greater viscosity and density, drag in water is greater than in air

Question 9

pressure drag

Answer 9

cased by turbulent flow. turbulence is caused when a moving body isn’t streamlined or hydrodynamic

Question 10

friction drag

Answer 10

occurs at the air/water interface with the surface of the animal. adaptations to reduce friction drag in aquatic vertebrates are a smooth surface with mucus and/or scales

Question 10

streamlined flow

Answer 10

laminar flow= parallel streamlines= more hydrodynamics= less pressure drag

Question 11

non-streamlined flow

Answer 11

turbulent flow= non-parallel streamlines= less hydrodynamic= more pressure drag

Question 12

wings

Answer 12

used for lift
-feathers make wings more effective
-alula used to minimize turbulence at low speeds

Question 13

properties of bones

Answer 13

bone is very good force-bearing material
-withstands compressive, tensile, shear forces
-composite material: bone matrix is made from hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate) and collagen

Question 14

compressive force

Answer 14

pressing down to compact it

Question 15

tensile force

Answer 15

stretching it

Question 16

shear forces

Answer 16

sliding it into sections

Question 17

bone

Answer 17

organ
-consist of all four types of animal tissue
-epithelium, connective, muscle, nervous tissue
-hollow! frequently loaded asymmetrically, stress is concentrated at surface

Question 18

traveculae

Answer 18

lies along lines of internal stress
-spongy bone, made of delicate spicules

Question 19

hypertrophy

Answer 19

increase in size, bulk

Question 20

hyperplasia

Answer 20

increase in numbers of cells

Question 21

atrophy

Answer 21

loss of bulk when tissue unused