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Chapter 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

How is the membrane potential of a neuron maintained at rest (in a “polarized” state, approximately -70 mV)

A

There are fewer cations inside than outside axon

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2
Q

What causes there to be fewer cations inside that outside the axon for a neuron maintained at rest (-70 mV)

A
  • The Na+/K+ pump is always active
  • For every 3+ that flow outside, 2+ flow inside
    • channels are closed at rest
  • Na+ IN, K+ OUT
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3
Q

When a neuron is in a “resting state” (not firing), it is “polarized” because:

A

There are more cations outside the neuron than inside it, making the difference in electrical potential from inside to outside the neuron -70 mV

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4
Q

EPSP (excited post synaptic potential)

A
  • Small positive change in membrane potential (depolarization)
  • Membrane potential becomes less negative (-65 mV)

https://o.quizlet.com/4CMQFq3-BfXojKtY8l-R5g.jpg

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5
Q

IPSP (inhibited post synaptic potential)

A
  • Small negative change in membrane potential (hyperpolarization)
  • Membrane potential becomes more negative (-75 mV)
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6
Q

What happens when EPSP (depolarization) occurs?

A
  • Na+ channels open

- More sodium comes in and enters the neuron

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7
Q

What happens when IPSP (hyperpolarization) occurs?

A

K+ channels open more often –> K+ flows out
OR
Cl- channels open –> Cl- flows in

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8
Q

What causes action potentials?

A
  • Activation of sensory neuron ending (ex. skin, eye, tongue)
  • Input from other neurons
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9
Q

How is action potential triggered and conducted along a myelinated axon?

A
  1. ) Starts at axon hillock (interneuron)
  2. ) Travels down axon in a “wave of depolarization”
  3. ) Refractory period prevents action potential from moving backwards
  4. ) Opening and closing of ion channels exclusively at the Nodes of Ranvier
  5. ) This saltatory conduction accelerates the rate at which an action potential travels down an axon
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10
Q

How is action potential triggered and conducted along a unmyelinated axon?

A
  1. ) Starts at axon hillock (interneuron)
  2. ) Travels down axon in a “wave of depolarization”
  3. ) Refractory period prevents action potential from moving backwards
  4. ) Slower conduction of action potential
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11
Q

Myelinated vs. unmyelinated action potential initiation and conduction in axons

A

Insulation by myelin speeds up action potential down the axon; saltatory conduction

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12
Q

Saltatory conduction

A
  • Occurs for myelinated axons

- Involves the opening and closing of ion channels exclusively at the Nodes of Ranvier

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13
Q

Myelinated axons occur in the CNS via

A

Oligodendrocytes

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14
Q

Myelinated axons occur in the PNS via

A

Schwann cells

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15
Q

How does a local anesthetic like Novocain prevent action potentials in your sensory nerves?

A

It blocks the Na+ channels in sensory nerves

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16
Q

How can a poison like TTX (pufferfish) kill you?

A

It blocks the Na+ channels and stops all nerve firing

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17
Q

What is an example of a demyelinating disease?

A

Multiple sclerosis (MS)

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18
Q

How does a demyelinating disease like multiple sclerosis lead to slowed movement, or an inability to move?

A
  • The myelin deteriorates which slows down action potential and makes transmission happen slower
  • If you lose all of your myelin then it makes it almost impossible
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19
Q

Major steps in chemical neurotransmission

A

-Synthesis of a neurotransmitter: packaging in vesicles
-Action potential arrives at axon terminal and triggers NT release (exocytosis)
-Neurotransmitter goes across the synapse and binds to receptors on postsynaptic neuron
Neurotransmitter goes off the receptor and NT signaling is terminated via:
-Reuptake
-Degradation

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20
Q

Describe step 1 in chemical neurotransmission

A

Synthesis of a neurotransmitter: packaging in vesicles

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21
Q

Describe step 2 in chemical neurotransmission

A
  • Action potential arrives at axon terminal and triggers NT release (exocytosis)
  • Ca++ channels open, Ca+ flows IN
  • Ca+ causes vesicle membranes to fuse with axon terminal membrane
  • NT is released into synapse
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22
Q

Describe step 3 in chemical neurotransmission

A
  • NT molecules cross synapse and bind to receptors on post-synaptic neuron
  • Which receptor the NT binds to determines if the neuron is excited or inhibited
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23
Q

Describe step 4 in chemical neurotransmission

A

Neurotransmitter goes off the receptor and NT signaling is terminated via: Reuptake of NT

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24
Q

Describe step 5 in chemical neurotransmission

A
  • Neurotransmitter goes off the receptor and NT signaling is terminated via: Enzymatic degradation
  • Most NTs go back into axon terminal that released them, by the use of a transporter protein, but some are broken down by enzyme in the synapse and thus inactivated
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25
Q

Ionotropic receptor

A
  • Receptor is an ion channel → NT binding causes ion channel to open (or close)
  • Fast activation that is brief
  • No lasting consequences
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26
Q

Metabotropic receptor

A
  • When a NT binds here a subunit of the G protein breaks off and either binds to an ion channel of stimulates synthesis of second messenger
  • Activation is slower and longer
  • Neuron “metabolism” changes and can change gene expression
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27
Q

Glutamate

A
  • NT of the amino acid class
  • 3 glutamate receptor types: all are ionotropic & open Na+ channels so +
  • Always excitatory → increases the neurons action potential
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28
Q

GABA

A
  • NT of the amino acid class
  • 2 GABA receptor types: 1 ionotropic (opens Cl- channels); 2 metabotropic (opens K+ channels) so -
  • Always inhibitory → decreases the neurons action potential
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29
Q

Example of a behavior or experience that dopamine (DA) is involved in

A
  • Mood
  • Cognition
  • Movement
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30
Q

Drug that alters dopamine (DA)

A

L-Dopa increases synthesis to treat Parkinson’s disease

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31
Q

3 neurotransmitters of the monoamine class

A
  • Dopamine
  • Serotonin
  • Norepinephrine
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32
Q

Example of a behavior or experience that norepinephrine is involved in

A

Alertness

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33
Q

Example of a behavior or experience that serotonin is involved in

A
  • Mood
  • Vision
  • Appetite
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34
Q

Drug that alters serotonin

A

SSRI’s block reuptake of 5-HT and increase NT action

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35
Q

Two main functions of acetylcholine (ACh)

A
  • Movement

- Memory

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36
Q

How can diet influence your mood or behavior by influencing your neurotransmitter and ion levels?

A
  • There are essential amino acids that the body can’t make
  • Neurons won’t fire without electrolytes
  • Neurons need Na+, K+, Mg+, Ca+
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37
Q

Describe the circuitry underlying the knee-jerk reflex, including what types of neurons and what neurotransmitters are involved

A
  • Tap on patellar tendon
  • Sensory neuron fires into spinal cord
  • Excited motor neuron goes back out to quad, releases glutamate, acetylcholine is released and the muscle contracts
  • Sensory neuron activates interneuron and inhibits motor neuron that goes out to the hamstring so the hamstring relaxes
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38
Q

Why do people who suffer from myasthenia gravis experience “muscle weakness”

A

People with myasthenia gravis experience muscle weakness because the disease results in a loss of acetylcholine receptors

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39
Q

What type of medication is used to help myasthenia gravis patients move more normally (how does this drug work)?

A
  • Tensilon drug
  • AChE inhibitors prevent AChE from breaking down ACh
  • Increase in ACh
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40
Q

Agonist

A

Enhances neurotransmitter action

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41
Q

Antagonist

A

Inhibits neurotransmitter action

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42
Q

Novocain

A
  • Antagonist

- Blocks Na+ channels in sensory nerves

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43
Q

Botox

A
  • Antagonist
  • Release
  • Decreases release of ACh
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44
Q

Nicotine

A
  • Agonist
  • Binding
  • Mimics ACh at 1 type of cholinergic receptor
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45
Q

Oxycotin

A
  • Agonist
  • Binding
  • Mimic endorphin at opioid receptors (decrease pain)
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46
Q

Amphetamines

A
  • Agonist
  • Release
  • Increase release of monoamines
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47
Q

SSRI’s

A
  • Agonist
  • Reuptake
  • Blocks reuptake, thereby increasing NT action
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48
Q

MAO (antidepressants)

A
  • Agonist
  • Enzymatic degradation
  • MAO inhibitors prevent MAO from breaking down monoamines, thereby increased NT action
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49
Q

At rest, a neuron is _____, with a resting potential of about _____ mV.

A

Polarized; -70

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50
Q

In resting neurons, there are more _____ ions outside the cell than inside, and more ______ ions inside than outside.

A

Na+; K+

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51
Q

________________ are specialized pores in neural membranes through which ions can pass.

A

Ion channels

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52
Q

In a resting neuron, _____________ channels are open, whereas ______________ channels are closed.

A

potassium; sodium

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53
Q

Sodium-potassium pumps transport ____ sodium ions out of the cell for every ___ potassium ions they transport into the cell.

A

3; 2

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54
Q

IPSPs are:

A

inhibitory.

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55
Q

A change in the resting membrane potential from -70 mV to -68 mV would be considered a(n):

A

EPSP

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56
Q

Action potentials are generated in the axon initial segment, which is adjacent to the:

A

axon hillock.

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57
Q

The action potential is:

A

an all-or-none response.

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58
Q

Combining a number of individual IPSPs and EPSPs into one signal is called:

A

integration

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59
Q

The rising phase of an action potential begins when the ____________ and ends when the _____________.

A

sodium channels open; sodium channels close

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60
Q

Action potentials normally travel along axons in only one direction because of the:

A

refractory period.

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61
Q

The transmission of action potentials in myelinated axons is called:

A

saltatory conduction.

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62
Q

Why should the Hodgkin-Huxley model of understanding the mechanisms of cerebral neurons be applied with great caution?

A

Their research was based on a type of neuron in a particular species that may not generalize to activity in the mammalian brain.

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63
Q

Conduction in interneurons lacking axons is typically __________ and ____________.

A

passive; decremental

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64
Q

A(n)________synapse on or near a terminal button can selectively facilitate or inhibit the effects of that button on the postsynaptic neuron.

A

axoaxonic

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65
Q

Many neurons contain two neurotransmitters—a situation generally called:

A

coexistence.

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66
Q

Exocytosis of small-molecule neurotransmitters involves:

A

the activation of voltage-activated calcium channels.

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67
Q

_________ are metabotropic receptors that have unconventional characteristics. For example, they bind to their neuron’s own neurotransmitter molecules.

A

Autoreceptors

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68
Q

Gap junctions are:

A

narrow spaces between adjacent cells that are bridged by connexins.

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69
Q

With respect to the classes of neurotransmitters, small-molecule is to _____ as large-molecule is to _____.

A

amino acids; neuropeptides

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70
Q

____________ are the neurotransmitters in the vast majority of fast-acting directed synapses in the central nervous system.

A

Amino acids

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71
Q

One amino acid neurotransmitter is:

A

GABA.

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72
Q

Which choice is a monoamine neurotransmitter?

A

norepinephrine

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73
Q

Which choice is an indoleamine neurotransmitter?

A

serotonin

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74
Q

Drugs that facilitate the effects of a particular neurotransmitter are said to be _______________ of that neurotransmitter. Drugs that inhibit the effects of a particular neurotransmitter are said to be its ______________.

A

agonist; antagonist

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75
Q

Botox is a:

A

nicotinic antagonist.

76
Q

Which statement is true with respect to atropine?

A

Atropine is a receptor blocker.

77
Q

One example of an endogenous opioid is:

A

enkaphalin.

78
Q

__________________ produces a temporary disorder that resembles schizophrenia.

A

Amphetamine

79
Q

Membrane potential

A

The difference in electrical charge between the inside and the outside of a cell.

80
Q

Microelectrodes

A

Extremely fine recording electrodes, which are used for intracellular recording.

81
Q

Resting potential

A

The steady membrane potential of a neuron at rest, usually about −70 mV.

82
Q

Polarized

A

In the context of membrane potentials, it is a membrane potential that is not zero.

83
Q

Ions

A

Positively or negatively charged particles.

84
Q

Ion channels

A

Pores in neural membranes through which specific ions pass.

85
Q

Sodium−potassium pumps

A

An ion transporter that actively exchanges three Na+ ions inside the neuron for two K+ ions outside.

86
Q

Transporters

A

Mechanisms in the membrane of a cell that actively transport ions or molecules across the membrane.

87
Q

Postsynaptic potentials (PSPs)

A

Potentials that move the postsynaptic cell’s membrane potential away from the resting state.

88
Q

Depolarize

A

To decrease the resting membrane potential.

89
Q

Hyperpolarize

A

To increase the resting membrane potential.

90
Q

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)

A

Graded postsynaptic depolarizations, which increase the likelihood that an action potential will be generated.

91
Q

Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

A

Graded postsynaptic hyperpolarizations, which decrease the likelihood that an action potential will be generated.

92
Q

Axon hillock

A

The conical structure at the junction between the axon and cell body.

93
Q

Miscellaneous peptides

A

One of the five categories of neuropeptide transmitters; it include those neuropeptide transmitters that don’t fit into one of the other four categories.

94
Q

Agonists

A

Drugs that facilitate the effects of a particular neurotransmitter.

95
Q

Antagonists

A

Drugs that inhibit the effects of a particular neurotransmitter.

96
Q

Receptor blockers

A

Antagonistic drugs that bind to postsynaptic receptors without activating them and block the access of the usual neurotransmitter.

97
Q

Atropine

A

A receptor blocker that exerts its antagonistic effect by binding to muscarinic receptors.

98
Q

Botox

A

Botulinium toxin; a neurotoxin released by bacterium often found in spoiled food. It blocks the release of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions and has applications in medicine and cosmetics.

99
Q

Periaqueductal gray (PAG)

A

The gray matter around the cerebral aqueduct, which contains opiate receptors and activates a descending analgesia circuit.

100
Q

Endogenous

A

Naturally occurring in the body (e.g., endogenous opioids).

101
Q

Enkephalins

A

The first class of endogenous opioids to be discovered.

102
Q

Endorphins

A

A class of endogenous opioids.

103
Q

Mechanisms in the membrane of a cell that actively move ions or molecules across the membrane are called:

A

transporters.

104
Q

The transmission of EPSPs and IPSPs is:

A

decremental.

105
Q

Which analogy BEST highlights the speed at which postsynaptic potentials travel from their site of origin?

A

Postsynaptic potentials travel like electrical signals along a cable.

106
Q

Postsynaptic hyperpolarizations are called IPSPs because they _____ the chance that ______.

A

decrease; a neuron will fire

107
Q

When postsynaptic potentials produced in rapid succession at the same synapse add together, it is called:

A

temporal summation.

108
Q

The firing of a neuron is like the firing of a gun because both are:

A

triggered by graded responses.

109
Q

The three phases of an action potential are, in order, the _____ phase, the _____ phase, and the _____ phase.

A

rising; repolarization; hyperpolarization

110
Q

The ____________ refractory period is followed by the _________ refractory period.

A

absolute; relative

111
Q

Axonal conduction from cell body to terminal buttons is called _______ conduction.

A

orthodromic

112
Q

The advantage of presynaptic facilitation and inhibition (compared to EPSPs and IPSPs) is that they can:

A

selectively influence one particular synapse rather than the entire presynaptic neuron.

113
Q

Small-molecule neurotransmitters are typically synthesized in the cytoplasm of the terminal button and packaged in ________________ by the button’s _________________.

A

synaptic vesicles; Golgi complex

114
Q

_____________________ receptors are associated with ligand-activated ion channels, whereas __________________ receptors are associated with signal proteins and G proteins.

A

Ionotropic; metabotropic

115
Q

One function of gap junctions appears to be to ________________ the activities of like cells in a particular area.

A

synchronize

116
Q

______________________ are neurotransmitters that are similar to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main psychoactive constituent of marijuana.

A

Endocannabinoids

117
Q

______________, which is the main active ingredient of belladonna, is a receptor blocker that exerts its antagonist effect by binding to muscarinic receptors, thereby blocking the effects of acetylcholine on them.

A

Atropine

118
Q

Axon initial segment

A

The segment of the axon where action potentials are generated—located immediately adjacent to the axon hillock.

119
Q

Threshold of excitation

A

The level of depolarization necessary to generate an action potential; usually about −65 mV.

120
Q

Action potential (AP)

A

A massive momentary reversal of a neuron’s membrane potential from about −70 mV to about +50 mV.

121
Q

Action potential (AP)

A

A massive momentary reversal of a neuron’s membrane potential from about −70 mV to about +50 mV.

122
Q

Spatial summation

A

The integration of signals that originate at different sites on the neuron’s membrane.

123
Q

Temporal summation

A

The integration of neural signals that occur at different times at the same synapse.

124
Q

Voltage-gated ion channels

A

Ion channels that open and close in response to changes in the level of the membrane potential.

125
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

A brief period (typically 1 to 2 milliseconds) after the initiation of an action potential during which it is impossible to elicit another action potential in the same neuron.

126
Q

Relative refractory period

A

A period after the absolute refractory period during which a higher-than-normal amount of stimulation is necessary to make a neuron fire.

127
Q

Antidromic conduction

A

Axonal conduction opposite to the normal direction; conduction from axon terminals back toward the cell body.

128
Q

Orthodromic conduction

A

Axonal conduction in the normal direction—from the cell body toward the terminal buttons.

129
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

The gaps between adjacent myelin sheaths on an axon.

130
Q

Saltatory conduction

A

Conduction of an action potential from one node of Ranvier to the next along a myelinated axon.

131
Q

Dendritic spines

A

Tiny protrusions of various shapes that are located on the surfaces of many dendrites.

132
Q

Tripartite synapse

A

A synapse that involves two neurons and an astroglia.

133
Q

Directed synapses

A

Synapses at which the site of neurotransmitter release and the site of neurotransmitter reception are in close proximity.

134
Q

Nondirected synapses

A

Synapses at which the site of neurotransmitter release and the site of neurotransmitter reception are not close together.

135
Q

Neuropeptides

A

Short amino acid chains.

136
Q

Synaptic vesicles

A

Small spherical membranes that store neurotransmitter molecules and release them into the synaptic cleft.

137
Q

Golgi complex

A

Structures in the cell bodies and terminal buttons of neurons that package neurotransmitters and other molecules in vesicles.

138
Q

Coexistence

A

The presence of more than one neurotransmitter in the same neuron.

139
Q

Exocytosis

A

The process of releasing a neurotransmitter.

140
Q

Receptors

A

Cells that are specialized to receive chemical, mechanical, or radiant signals from the environment; also proteins that contain binding sites for particular neurotransmitters.

141
Q

Ligand

A

A molecule that binds to another molecule; neurotransmitters are ligands of their receptors.

142
Q

Receptor subtypes

A

The different types of receptors to which a particular neurotransmitter can bind.

143
Q

Ionotropic receptors

A

Receptors that are associated with ligand-activated ion channels.

144
Q

Metabotropic receptors

A

Receptors that are associated with signal proteins and G proteins.

145
Q

G proteins

A

Proteins that are located inside neurons (and some other cells) and are attached to metabotropic receptors in the cell membrane.

146
Q

Second messenger

A

A chemical synthesized in a neuron in response to the binding of a neurotransmitter to a metabotropic receptor in its cell membrane.

147
Q

Autoreceptors

A

A type of metabotropic receptor located on the presynaptic membrane that bind to their neuron’s own neurotransmitters.

148
Q

Reuptake

A

The drawing back into the terminal button of neurotransmitter molecules after their release into the synapse; the most common mechanism for deactivating a released neurotransmitter.

149
Q

Enzymatic degradation

A

The breakdown of chemicals by enzymes—one of the two mechanisms for deactivating released neurotransmitters.

150
Q

Enzymes

A

Proteins that stimulate or inhibit biochemical reactions without being affected by them.

151
Q

Acetylcholinesterase

A

The enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

152
Q

Gap junctions

A

Narrow spaces between adjacent neurons that are bridged by fine tubular channels containing cytoplasm, through which electrical signals and small molecules can pass readily.

153
Q

Amino acid neurotransmitters

A

A class of small-molecule neurotransmitters, which includes the amino acids glutamate, aspartate, glycine, and GABA.

154
Q

Glutamate

A

The most prevalent excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.

155
Q

Aspartate

A

An amino acid neurotransmitter.

156
Q

Glycine

A

An amino acid neurotransmitter.

157
Q

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

A

The amino acid neurotransmitter that is synthesized from glutamate; the most prevalent inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system.

158
Q

Monoamine neurotransmitters

A

Small-molecule neurotransmitters that are synthesized from monoamines and comprise two classes: catecholamines and indolamines.

159
Q

Dopamine

A

One of the three catecholamine neurotransmitters.

160
Q

Epinephrine

A

One of the three catecholamine neurotransmitters.

161
Q

Norepinephrine

A

One of the three catecholamine neurotransmitters.

162
Q

Serotonin

A

An indolamine neurotransmitter; the only member of this class of monoamine neurotransmitters found in the mammalian nervous system.

163
Q

Catecholamines

A

The three monoamine neurotransmitters that are synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine: dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine.

164
Q

Indolamines

A

The class of monoamine neurotransmitters that are synthesized from tryptophan; serotonin is the only member of this class found in the mammalian nervous system.

165
Q

Acetylcholine

A

A neurotransmitter that is created by the addition of an acetyl group to a choline molecule.

166
Q

All-or-none responses

A

Responses that are not graded; they either occur to their full extent or do not occur at all.

167
Q

Soluble-gas neurotransmitters

A

A class of unconventional neurotransmitters that includes nitric oxide and carbon monoxide.

168
Q

Nitric oxide

A

A soluble-gas neurotransmitter.

169
Q

Carbon monoxide

A

A soluble-gas neurotransmitter.

170
Q

Endocannabinoids

A

A class of unconventional neurotransmitters that are chemically similar to the active components of marijuana.

171
Q

Anandamide

A

The first endogenous endocannabinoid to be discovered and characterized.

172
Q

Neuropeptide transmitters

A

Peptides that function as neurotransmitters, of which about 100 have been identified; also called neuropeptides.

173
Q

Pituitary peptides

A

One of the five categories of neuropeptide transmitters; it contains neuropeptides that were first identified as hormones released by the pituitary.

174
Q

Hypothalamic peptides

A

One of the five classes of neuropeptide transmitters; it consists of those first identified as hormones released by the hypothalamus.

175
Q

Opioid peptides

A

One of the five classes of neuropeptide transmitters; it consists of those with a structure similar to the active ingredients of opium.

176
Q

Miscellaneous peptides

A

One of the five categories of neuropeptide transmitters; it include those neuropeptide transmitters that don’t fit into one of the other four categories.

177
Q

Agonists

A

Drugs that facilitate the effects of a particular neurotransmitter.

178
Q

Antagonists

A

Drugs that inhibit the effects of a particular neurotransmitter.

179
Q

Receptor blockers

A

Antagonistic drugs that bind to postsynaptic receptors without activating them and block the access of the usual neurotransmitter.

180
Q

Atropine

A

A receptor blocker that exerts its antagonistic effect by binding to muscarinic receptors.

181
Q

Botox

A

Botulinium toxin; a neurotoxin released by bacterium often found in spoiled food. It blocks the release of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions and has applications in medicine and cosmetics.

182
Q

Periaqueductal gray (PAG)

A

The gray matter around the cerebral aqueduct, which contains opiate receptors and activates a descending analgesia circuit.

183
Q

Endogenous

A

Naturally occurring in the body (e.g., endogenous opioids).

184
Q

Enkephalins

A

The first class of endogenous opioids to be discovered.

185
Q

Endorphins

A

A class of endogenous opioids.

Psych 372 Bio PSYCH (14 decks)

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