Chapter 3: Experimental: Memory (7-9%) Flashcards
Stages of Memory
Sensory
Short-Term
Long-Term
Studying Memory
Involves understanding how things are remembered and why things are forgotten.
Sensory Memory
- Last only for seconds
- Forms the connection b/t perception and memory
Iconic Memory
is the sensory memory for vision
George Sperling
Found that people could see more than they can remember
Ulric Neisser: Icon
For brief visual memory and found that an icon last for about one second.
Backward Masking
When subjects are exposed to a bright flash of light or a new pattern b/f the iconic image fades, the image will be erased. (More successful if it similar to the original stimulus)(works for auditory system as well)
Echoic Memory
is the sensory memory for auditory sensations
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Teporary; lasts for seconds or minutes
Working Memory
is the temporary memory that is needed to perform the task that someone is working on at that moment
George Miller
Found that short-term memory has the capacity of about seven items (+ or - two items)
Chunking (grouping items)
can increase the capacity of STM
Rehearsal
(Repeating or practicing) is the key to keeping items in the STM and to transferring items to the long-term memory (LTM)
Primary (maintence) Rehearsal:
Involves repeating material in order to hold it in STM
Secondary (elaborative) Rehearsal
Involves organizing and understanding material in order to transfer it to LTM
Interference
How other information or distractions cause one to forget new items that were presented
Proactive Interference
Disrupting information that was learned before the new items were presented
-This is problematic for recall and thus causes proactive inhibition
Retroactive Interference
Disrupting information that was learned after the new items were presented.
-This is problematic for recall and thus causes retroactive inhibition
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- Capable of permanent retention
- Most items are learned semantically, for meaning
- LTM retention is measured by recognition, recall and savings
Recognition
Recognize things learned in the past
Ex. M. choice test
Recall
Generate information
Cused Recall
remembering w/ cues
Free Recall
Remembering w/o cues
Savings
Measures how much information about a subject remains in LTM by assessing how long it takes to learn something the second time as opposed to the first time.
Encoding Specificity Principle
Material is more likely to be remembered if it is retrieved in the same context in which it was stored.
Episodic Memory
Consists of details, events, and discrete knowledge
Semantic Memory
Consists of general knowledge of the world.
Procedural Memory
is know how to do something.
Declarative Memory
is knowing a fact.
Explicit Memory
Is knowing something and being consciously aware of knowing it, such as knowing a fact.
Implicit Memory
Is know something without being aware of knowing it.
Herman Ebbinghaus
First to study memory systematically.
Forgetting Cuve
Depicts a sharp drop in savings immediately after learning.
Frederick Bartlett
Found that memory is reconstructive rather rote.
-People are more likely to remember the ideas or semantics of a story rather than the details or grammar of the story.
Allan Paivo: Dual Code hypothesis
Items will be better remembered if they are encoded both visually (with icons / imagery) and semantically (with understanding).
Fergus Craik & Robert Lockhart: Depth of Processing
Different levels of processing exist from the most superficial phonological (pronunciation) level to the deep semantic (meaning level). The deeper an item is processed, the easier it is to learn & recall.
Paired Associated Learning
One Item is learned w/ and than cues the recall of another. Also used when learning foreign languages. (hombre = man)
Elizabeth Loftus
Found that memory of traumatic events is altered by the event itself and by the way that question about the event are phrased
Karl Lashley
Found that memories are stored diffusely in the brain.
Donald Hebb: Synapses & Neural Pathways
E.R Kandel
Memory Tree
Studying the sea slug Aplysia
Brenda Milner
Patient HM: given a lesion of the hippocampus to treat epilepsy.
Remembered things before the surgery, (STM is intact) could not store anything new (LTM)
Serial Learning
A list that is learn and recalled in order (serial recall)
Primacy & Recency Effects
Feedback on the correct responses in the correct order is given after the entire list is recalled
Serial Position Curve
Shows the savings effect
Serial Anticipation Learning
Recalling one item at a time
Free- Recall Learning
A list of items are learning and recalled in any order w/ no cues
Factors for Learning easier
Acoustic dissimilarity Semantic dissimilarity Brevity ( length of the term & length of list of term to be remebered) Familiarity Concreteness Meaning Importance to the subject
Decay Theory (Trace Theory)
Posits that memories fade w/ time (other activities are known to interfere w/ retrieval)
Interference Theory
Competing information blocks retreival
Mnemonics
Memory cues that help learning and recall. (Ex. OCEAN: Big five factors of personality. Openess Consientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
Generation Recognition Model
Suggest that anything one might recall should easily be recognized
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
Being on the verge of retrieval but unsuccessful in doing so.
State- Depender Memory
Retrieval is more successful if it occurs in the same emotional state or physical state in which encoding occured
Clustering
Tendency to group together similar items in memories whether they are learned together or not.
Order of Items on a List
Can more quickly state the order of two items that are far apart on the list than two items that are closer together
Incidental Learning
Presenting items to someone that are not suppose try to memorized and than testing for learning
Eidetic Imagery
Photographic memory
Flashbulb Memory
Recollections that seen to be burned into the brain
Tachiscope
Instrument of ten used in cognitive or memory experiements. It presents visual material to subjects for a faction of a second
Zeigarnik Effect
The tendency to recall uncompleted tasks better than completed ones
