Chapter 1: Experimental: Learning (3-5%) Flashcards
E.L. Thorndike: Law of Effect
Postulated a cause-and-effect chain of behavior revolving are reinforcement. Individuals do what rewards them and stop doing what doesn’t bring some reward.
Learning
The relatively permanent or stable change in behavior as the result of experice.
+ Some theorist assert that animals learn in order to manipulate rewards & punishments
+ Others believe animals learn through temporal relationships or pairing
+ Many types of learning come into play at different points
Kurt Lewin (Behaviorism): Theory of Association
Association is the grouping things together based on the fact that they occur together in time and space. Organisms associate certain behaviors with certain rewards and certain cues with certain situations.
Ivan Pavlov (Digestion and dogs): Classical/Pavlovian Conditioning
Teaching an organism to respond to a neutral stimulus by pairing the neutral stimulus with a not-so-neutral stimulus.
John B. Watson: Founded the School of Behaviorism
Idea of learning and all behavior was that everything could be explained by stimulus-response chains and that conditioning was the key factor in developing these chains
B.F. Skinner
Conducted the first scientific experiment to prove Thorndike concepts in Law-of-Effect and Watson’s idea of cause and effect behavior.
Operant Conditioning
The idea of behavior being influenced primarily by reinforcement.
Skinner Box
Proved that animals are influenced by reinforcement
Classical/Pavlovian Conditioning
The pairing a neutral stimulus w/ a not so neutral stimulus; this creats a relationship b/t the two
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that does not produce a specific response on its own.
(EX. Pavlov- the light before he conditioned a response to it
Unconditional Stimulus (UCS)
The not-so-neutral stimulus.
(Ex. Pavlov: the UCS is the food. W/o conditioning, the stimulus elicts the response of salivating.
Conditional Stimulus (CS)
The neutral stimulus once paired w/ UCS. CS has not naturally occurring response, but is conditioned through the pairing of US.
(Ex. CS (light) is paired w/ UCS (food), CS alone w/ produce a response (salivating))
Unconditional Response
The neutrally occurring response of UCS.
Ex. Sa;ivation in response to food
Conditioned Response
The response to the CS elicits after conditioning. The UCS and CR become the same thing.
(Ex. salivating due to food or a light)
Simultanous Conditioning
The UCS (food) and the CS (light) are presented at the time time
Higher Order Conditioning / Second-Order Conditioning
A conditioning technique in which a previous CS now acts as a UCS.
(Ex. Light used a the UCS after conditioned, food is taken away. The light is paired w/ a bell (CS) until the bell itself elicited saliva.
Forward Conditioning
Pairing of the CS (light)and UCS (food), in which the CS is presented before the UCS
Delayed Conditioning
Presentation of the CS (light) begains before that of the UCS (food) and lasts until the UCS is presented
Trace Conditioning
CS (light) is present and terminated before the UCS (food) is presnted
Backward Conditioning
The CS (light) is presented after the UCS (food). (Proven to be ineffective)
Inhibitary Conditioning
Once classically conditioning is achieved. A ssecond CS is added and the UCS is removed. But would have hard time pairing the two CS’s
(Ex. Bell(cs)+food(ucs)=salivation(cr)
Tone(cs)+bell(cs)=no response
Operant / Instrumental Conditioning (Skinner)
Aims to influence a response through various reinforcements. The idea that we do reaps rewards and don’t do things that don’t reap rewards.
Shaping
Rewarding behavior that bring closer to a desired act.
Differential Reinforcement of Successive Approximation
Rewarding desired behavior
Parimary Reinforcement
A natural reinforcement. Something that is reinforcing on its own w/o the requirement of learning. (Ex. food & water)
Secondary Reinforcement
A learned reinforcement. Often learned through society.
Positive Reinforcement
A type of reward/positive event acting as a stimulus that increase the likeilyhood of a particular response
Negative Reinforcement
(Not punishment) Reinforcement through the removal of a negative event. Works by taking away something that he/she dislikes
*Punishment- Encourages a subject to stop behaving in a certain way
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
Every correct response is met w/ some form of reinforcement. This type of reinforcement strategy facilitates the quickest learning, also the most fragile learning; reward stop coming, performance stops
Partial Reinforcement Schedule
Not all correct responses are met w/ reinforcement. The strategy may require a longer learning time. Once learned, behaviors are more resistant to extinction
Fixed Ratio Schedule
A reinforcement is delivered after a consistent number of responses
Variable Ratio Schedule
Learning takes the most time to occur, but, the learning is least likely to become extingushed. The ratio cannot be predicted (slot machine)
Fixed Interval Schedule
Rewards come after the passage of a certain period of time rather than the number of behaviors
Token Economy
Desirable behaviors are reinforced w/ tokens, which can be cashed in for primary reinforcers
Primary / Instinctual Drives
Drives not learned (hunger/thirst)
Secondary / Acquired Drives
Drives that are learned reinforcers (Ex. Money)
Exploratory Drive
Individuals are simply motivated to try something new or to explore their environment.
- Some theories assert that humans are primarily motivated to maintain physiological or psycholical homeotasis
- Fritz Heider’s balance theory, Charles Osgood & Percy Tannebaum’s congruity theory, andLeon Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory (Social Psych) all agree that what drives people is a desire to be balance w/ respect to their feelings, ideas, or behavior
Drive-Reduction Theories
Humans are motivated to reduce the state of tension caused when certain biological needs are not satisfied
Clark Hull
Performance=Drive x Habit.
Individuals are first motivated by drive and than they act according to old successful habits. Doing wwhat has worked in the past to satisfy the drive
Edward Tolma: Expectancy-Value Theory
Performance=Expectation x Value
People are motivated by goals that they might actually meet.
*One factor is how important the goal is
Victor Vroom
Individuals who are lowest on the totem pole do not expect to recieve company incentives.
Henry Murray & David McCelland
People are motivated by a need for achievement (nAch). Manifested through a need to pursue success or a need to avoid failure.
(Goal is to feel successful)
John Alkinson: Theory of Motivation
People who set realistic goals w/ intermediate risk sets, feel pride w/ accomplishment. Want to succeed more than they feel failure
-Success is so important, these people are unlikeily to set unrealistic/risky goals or to persist when success is unlikeily
Neil Miller: Approach-Avoidance Conflict
The state one feels when a certain goal has both pros and cons
- Further one is from the goal, the more focuses on the pros/reason to approach
- Closer one is from the goal, the more focuses on the cons/reason to avoid
Hedonism Theory
Individuals are motivated solely by what brings the most please and the least pain
Permack Principle
The idea that people are motivated to do what they don’t want to do by rewarding themselves afterwards w/ something they like
Donald Herbb
A medium amount of arousal is best for performance
+ To little or to much could humper performance
+ Simple task (high end) + Complex(low end) *Never at the extrems
Yerks-Dodson Effect
Inverted U-Curve graph
Stimulus
Refers to any event that an organism reacts to. First link stimulus response chain.
Stimulus Discrimination
The ability to discriminate b/t different but similar stimuli.
(Ex. Doorbell vs Phone ring)
Stimulus Generalization
To make the same response to a group of stimuli (Fire alarms)
Undergernalization
Failure to generalize a stimulus
Response Learning
Form of learning that links together chains of stimuli and response.
(Ex. Leaving a building due to fire alarm)
Perceptual / Concept Learning
Learning something in general rather than learning-specific stimulus-response chains
Aversive Conditioning
Use of punishment to decrease the likely of behavior.
Avoidance Conditioning
Teaches an animals to avoid something they don’t want to avoid.
Escape Conditioning
Teaches an animals to perform a desired behavior to get away from negative stimuli
Punishment
Promotes extinction of an undesirable behavior
Autonomic Conditioning
Evoking response of the autonomic nervous system through training
State Dependent Learning
What a person learning in one state is best recalled in that state
Extinction
The reversal of conditioning. The goal is to encourage an organism to stop doing a particular behavior
Latent Learning
(takes place even w/o reinforcement) The actually learning is revealed at some other time.
(Ex. watching chess game, playing later doing moves learned earlier)
Incident Learning
Unrelated items are grouped together during this learning
Superstitious Behavior
“Learns” that a specific action causes an event, when in reality the two are unrelated.
(Ex. Lucky shirt)
Chaining
The act of linking together a series of behaviors that ultimately result in reinforcement.
Habituation
The decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus as a result of increasing familiarity with the stimulus
Sensitization
Increased sensitivity to the environment following the presentation of a strong stimulus
Overshadowing
Organism inability to infer a relationship b/t a particular stimulus and response due to the presence of more prominent stimulus
Autoshaping
An apparatus allows an animal to control its reinforcements through behavior
Social Learning Theory
Individuals learn through their culture. What is acceptable and unacceptable behavior through interacting in society
Observational Learning
Act of learning something by watching
Modeling
Refers to learning and behaving by imitating others
Albert Bandure: Bobo Doll
Children witness adults physically abusing blowup doll and proceeded to do the same, those who didn’t witness didn’t behavior that way
John Garcia
Discovered that animals are programmed through evolution to make certain connections
Preparedness
The concept that certain associations are learned more easily than others
Garcia Effect (Taste Aversion)
When individuals become sick one time after eatin g a particular food and never able to eat it again
M.E. Olds
Experiment in which electrical stimulation of pleasure centers in the brain were used as positive reinforcement (evidence against the drive-reduction theory)
Continuous Motor Task
Task once started continue naturally.
Ex. Riding a bike
Discrete Motor Task
Task that are divided into different parts, that do not facilitate the recall of each other
(Ex. Setting up a chess game)
Positive Transfer
Previous learning that makes it easy to learn another task later
Negative Transfer
Previous learning that makes it difficult to learn a new task
*Age has shown to affect learning
Herman Ebbinghaus: Learning Curve
When learning something new, the rate of learning usually changes over time. Positive accelerated rate learning increase. Negative decreases
Educational Psychology
-Examine students and teachers attributes and instructional process in the classroom
Thorndike
- Wrote the first educational psych book in 1903
- Help to develop various methods of assess students skills and teaching effectiveness
Cooperative Learnig
Students working on a project together
Scaffolding Learning
Teachers encourage student to learn independently and only provides assistance w/ topics or concepts that are beyond the students capability.
