Chapter 3 - Causal Factors and Viewpoints

Question 1

Distinguish between a correlate of a mental disorder and a risk factor for a mental disorder.

Answer 1

• Correlate: a variable that is associated with an outcome of interest. Doesn’t tell you if one caused the other (we don’t know the direction of the variables!)
• Risk Factor: If a variable happen BEFORE an outcome of interest.

Question 2

Distinguish between necessary, sufficient, and contributory causes in terms of psychological disorders. Give examples.

Answer 2

• Necessary: this step MUST exist for a disorder to occur (ex: a person must have had syphilis in order to develop general paresis.)
• Sufficient: If you have this then it GUARANTEES the occurrence of a disorder. This factor is enough on its own to cause a particular disorder. (ex: Hopelessness sufficiently causes depression.)
• Contributory: “contributes” to the disorder, increases the probability of the disorder developing. (ex: parental rejection can increase difficulty in adult relationships)

Question 3

Distinguish between distal and proximal factors?

Answer 3

• Distal: a causal factor occurs early in life and does not show their effects for many years. (ex: loss of a parent early in life can cause a person to be depressed later in life.)
• Proximal: something happens in your life that triggers the onset of a disorder. (ex: a crushing disappointment at school could lead to depression.)

Question 4

What is a reinforcing contributory cause? Give an example.

Answer 4

• If you already have a disorder and this cause reinforces/maintains the disorder (ex: If you are depressed and you isolate yourself from your loved ones, this can reinforce your existing depression)

Question 5

In the context of psychopathology, explain what the terms “protective factor” and “resilience” mean.

Answer 5

• Protective factor: decrease the likelihood of negative outcomes among those at risk. A protective factor actively buffers against the likelihood of a negative outcome among those who have risk factors. (ex: having at least one parent who is warm and supportive can protect against the harmful effects of an abusive parent.)
• Resilience: the ability to adapt successfully to even very difficult circumstance. (ex: a child who perseveres and does will in school despite their parent’s drug addiction.)

Question 6

What is a genotype-environment interaction?

Answer 6

• This is when you possess genetic factors that can contribute to a vulnerability to develop a disorder that only happens if there is a significant stressor in the person’s life. (ex: Children with a genetic vulnerability to PKU can develop an intellectual disability if they eat common foods with phenylalanine, so if you change the child’s diet, then this syndrome can be prevented.)

Question 7

Explain the three primary methods used in behavior genetics (family history, twin, adoption).

Answer 7

• Family History: requires that relatives of a subject that has a disorder are studied to see whether the frequency increases in proportion to the degree of hereditary relationship
  - Limitation: People who are more
  closely related genetically also
  tend to share more similar
  environments, making it difficult
  to disentangle genetic and
  environmental effects.
• Twin Method: the concordance rates for identical twins are studied and compared to dizygotic twins.
  
  • Limitation: Results are not always conclusive because it is likely that identical twins are treated more similarly than nonidentical twins. (Ideal: Study identical twins who have been raised in different environments)
• Adoption Method: parse out shared environmental experiences and focus how genetics influence a particular disorder.

Question 8

Make sure you understand the misconceptions about nature v. nurture covered in section 3.3 (and their corrections).

Answer 8

• Misconception: Strong genetic effects mean that environmental influences must be unimportant.
  - False: All traits or disorders have environmental influences. ex: height which is highly genetic can be influenced by environment.
• Misconception: Genes impose a limit on potential
  - False: One’s potential can change if one’s environment changes. If you have socially disadvantaged biological parents, but are adopted to parents that are socially advantaged, you can increase your IQ level.
• Misconception: Genetic strategies are of no value for studying environmental influences
  - False: even though monozygotic twins have identical genes, most disorders do not have concordance rates of 100 percent, showing the importance of environmental influences.
• Misconception: Genetic effects diminish with age.
  - False: Many genetic effects on psychological characteristics increase with age up to at least middle childhood or even young adulthood.
• Misconception: Disorders that run in families must be genetic and those that do not run in families must not be genetic.
  - False: Juvenile delinquency tends to run in families and that is primarily environmental. Autism does not really run in families and that is highly genetic.

Question 9

Understand what psychologists mean when they talk about “temperament.”

Answer 9

• Temperament refers to a child’s reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation. Thought to be the basis from which our personality develops.
• Strongly influenced by genetic factors but environmental factors can play a role as well.