Chapter 3

Question 1

Variables

Answer 1

characteristics and conditions that change of have different values for different people, animals or objects.

Question 2

Measurement

Answer 2

a process through which the nature, quantity or intensity of something is determined.

Question 3

process of measurement

Answer 3

1) define a construct

2) measurement instrumentation

Question 4

theory

Answer 4

why something is occurring, has occurred, or will occur

Question 5

contructs

Answer 5

variables that are hypothetical factors, attributes, or mechanisms that cannot be observed DIRECTLY, but are inferred from some behaviour.

attributes of mechanisms that help explain and predict behaviour in a theory. You can study the behaviours that theoretically result from a construct.

Question 6

Drawbacks of using operational definitions to measure the construct

Answer 6

not the same as the construct itself. an operational definition is only explained as observable traits, but a construct might be able to be defined via multiple traits, including cognitive and emotional aspects (for the construct of lonliness, introversion may be an emotional trait that cannot be operationally defined because it is not observable.)

Question 7

how can you be sure that measurements obtained from an operational definition actually represents the construct?

Answer 7

by measuring validity

Question 8

What is construct validity?

Answer 8

determines whether the measurements of a variable behave in exactly the same way as the variable itself, or whether the tool is the best for the construct, and accurately assesses it. How well does the measurement assess the construct?

Question 9

Three types of construct validity

Answer 9

1) face validity; does it make sense?
2) content validity: degree to which the measured variable appears to have adequately samples frrom the potential domainds of questions that might relate to the construct of interest.
3) convergent and divergent validity.

convergent= creating 2 different methods to measure the SAME construct, then showing a strong relationship between values obtained from the 2 measures.

divergent= demonstrating that the measurements on one specific construct does not include a different construct in the measure.

Question 10

criterion-related validity

Answer 10

validity used by some standard or criteria THAT IS KNOWN in order to indicate a construct accurately. verified by comparing with another measure of the same construct in which the research has confidence.

Question 11

example of criterion-related validity

Answer 11

the SAT is valid to the extent that it distinguishes between students that do well in college versus those that do not.

Question 12

two types of criterion-related validity

Answer 12

1) Concurrent Validity; a new measurement technique that is directly related to scores from another, better establish technique.
2) Predictive Validity; when measurements of a construct accurately predict behaviour according to a THEORY

Question 13

Reliability

Answer 13

a measurement procedure produces identical results when it is used repeatedly.

Question 14

a measure is reliable if there is very little ______

Answer 14

measurement error, or little deviation

Question 15

Name types of error that may effect reliability

Answer 15

1) observer error: person tracking the observations may be distracted, the equipment used to make measurements in the experience may be compromised
2) environmental changes: time of day, room temp chaned etc
3) participant changes: stress, transient mood, health, fatigue level, may change outcomes.

Question 16

ways of measuring reliability?

Answer 16

1) test retest
2) inter-observer reliability; analyzes degree of agreement between 2 or more observers that simultaneously record measurements independently
3) internal consistancy: the extent to which scores on the test correlate with each other

Question 17

What is split-half reliability

Answer 17

split-half reliability compares the results of one half of the test with the results of the other hald, aids in the measurement of the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured.

Question 18

T/F a measurement can be reliable but not valid

Answer 18

true

Question 19

Nominal scale of measurement

Answer 19

Qualitative/categorical data such as names or classfication (sex) that cannot be ordered whatsoever. mutually exclusive and exhaustive.

Question 20

ordinal scale of measurement

Answer 20

ordered or ranking of categories

-data can be ordered sequentially, but differences between categories cannot be determined

Question 21

example of ordinal data

Answer 21

shirt size, grades.

Question 22

interval data scale of measurement

Answer 22

numeric and quantitative with an arbitrary zero point. categories must all be the SAME SIZE

Question 23

example of interval data

Answer 23

temperature.

Question 24

Ratio scale of measurement

Answer 24

numeric or quantitative with a meaningful 0 point, which indicates the complete absense of a variable being measured- data can be compared in terms of ratios

Question 25

example of ratio data

Answer 25

weight (comparison–> he is 4x (ratio) heavier than other person)

Question 26

Modalities of measurement

Answer 26

1) self report measures
2) physiological measures
3) behavioral measures

Question 27

pros and cons of self report measures`

Answer 27

Pros: most direct way to assess a construct, more apparently valid.

cons: easy to distort values to make the individual look better,
hello good bye effect: patients tend to exaggerate their symptoms at the beginning and minimize symptoms at the end

Question 28

pros and cons of using physiological measures as a modality of measurement

Answer 28

advantages: objective, utilizes accurate and well defined measures.
disadvantages: expensive equipment, the physiological measure may not accurately measure the construct.

Question 29

pros and cons of using behavioral measures as a modality of measurement

Answer 29

advantage: many options of behavior to use- can be natural or task basked measures. can tailor to individual patients. the behavior itself may be the variable of interest.
cons: behaviour may be temporary or situational, observer can be subjective in what they see. ex/ disruptive vs playful

Question 30

pros and cons of using multiple measures to measure a construct

Answer 30

multiple measures: using 2 or more different modalities of measurement to analyze the same variable

pros: provides more confidence in validity
cons: requires complex multivariate statistical analysis, variables may not behave the same way- one may be more sensitive than the other, causing different dimensions of the variable to change at different times

Question 31

desynchrony

Answer 31

when 2 variables that are being used as multiple measures do not agree between each other.

Question 32

examples of desynchrony

Answer 32

studying therapy dos aids in anxious situations by measuring heartrate and behavior

-therapy dog exposure results in a large effect on behavior, but NO EFFECT on HR; HR may still race in an anxious situation, even if the person appears composed behavior)

Question 33

ceiling effect indicates _____

Answer 33

insensitivity- measurement range is restricted at the high end/ ceiling.

Question 34

example of ceiling effect

Answer 34

giving a reading test meant for four year olds to 12 year olds- probably every subject would score in the 95th percentile

Question 35

floor effect indicates_____

Answer 35

too sensitive- measurement range is restricted at the low end of the spectrum

Question 36

example of floor effect

Answer 36

using an analytical chemistry exam as a measure of intelligence in 5 year olds- theyd probs all score poorly

Question 37

range effects indicate that there is _____ between modality of measurement and the individuals chosen to be measured

Answer 37

incompatilbility

Question 38

what is an artifact? example?

Answer 38

any EXTERNAL factor that can affect measurements- a threat to validity and reliability

ex/ using an ice cold stethoscope to measure HR- the cold (external factor) may startle the patient, increasing their HR. This HR reading thus may be incorrect (invalid) and may be different if measured again when the stethschope had a chance to warm up to room temp (low reliability)

Question 39

2 notable artifcats and how to prevent artifacts

Answer 39

1) experimenter bias- use double blinded studies
2) demand characteristics and participant reactivity- any potential cue of a study that suggest to participants what the purpose or hypothesis is of the study, which may influence the participants to behave a certain way

Question 40

any potential cue of a study that suggest to participants what the purpose or hypothesis is of the study, which may influence the participants to behave a certain way

Answer 40

demand characteristics- type of artifact that may be a threat to validity and reliability

Question 41

Different Types of subjects

Answer 41

1) “ good “subject- has identified the hypothesis and acts a certain way to support the investigators hypothesis
2) “negative” subject- has identified the hypothesis and acts a certain way to sabotage the results

3) apprehensive subjects- individuals try to place themselves in a desirable light by responding in a socially-acceptable fashion
4) faithful subjects- answer honestly, ideal subject.

Question 42

strategies to combat reactivity

Answer 42

1) use a field study instead of laboratory setting

2) reassure participants that their performance and responses are confidential