Chapter 13: Descriptive Research Strategies Flashcards
descriptive research
measuring a variable or a set of varaibles as they exist naturally.
do descriptive research methods explain causal relationships?
no
3 types of descriptive research design
1) observational research
2) survey research
3) case study research
in an observational reserach design, researchers ___ and ___ record the behavior of individuals.
in an observational reserach design, researchers OBSERVE and SYSTEMATICALLY record the behavior of individuals.
typically, observational research designs observe overt ___
behavior
problems with behavioral observation
1) reactivity: is it important to not disrupt or influence the behaviors of the people being studied
2) subjective interpretation: there may be observer bias because researcher may selectively report behavior.
Solutions to reactivity:
you could conceal the observer (ethics)
you could allow for habituation time: repeated exposure until the observer’s presence is no longer a novel stimulus
habituation
repeated exposure until the observer’s presence is no longer a novel stimulus
solutions to observer bias and subjective interpretation
1) operantly define behaviours
2) well trained observers that are not associated with the study
3) calculating inter-rater reliability: calculating the correlation of agreement between observers’ scores
three methods in quantifying behavioral observations
1) frequency method: counting instances of behavior in a fixed period
2) duration method: recording how much time an individual spends engaged in a behavior
3) interval method. dividing the observation period into a series of intervals and then recording whether a specific behavior occurs during each interval.
unlike frequency or duration methods, interval methods of quantifying behavior allows researchers to ___ both frequency and duration into a more ____ measurement.
interval methods of quantifying behavior allows researchers to BALANCE both frequency and duration into a more REPRESENTATIVE measurement.
in complex situations, one method of observation is ___
sampling observations, where researchers record what is happening for further study of multiple variables later on
how to take good sample observations in complex situations? (3 different methods)
1) time sampling: observe record observe record
2) event sampling: identify a specific event or behaviour to be observed and recorded during the first interval, and then focus on a different behaviour on the next interval.
3) individual sampling: identify one participant to be observed during the first interval, then a different individual for a second interval.
how is content analysis/archival research conducted
applying techniques from behavioral observation to situations that do not involve direct observation of behaviors
content analysis
measures the occurrences of events in literature or texts that present replicas of a certain behavior
archival research
looking at historic records to measure behaviours of events that occurred in the past
overall measurement process of a non complicated observation
1) establish behavioral definitions
2) use the frequency method, the duration method or the interval method to obtain and quantify the behavioral data
3) use multiple observers to increase inter-rater reliability
three main types of behavioural observation
1) naturalistic observation
2) participant observation
3) contrived observation
what is naturalistic observation?
aka non participant observation. study behaviour in a natural setting without intervening anyway. researcher tries to be as unobtrusive as possible.
pros and cons of naturalistic observation
pros: can be used to describe any behavior
- insight into real-world behavior
- high external validity
- good at examining behaviors hat cannot ethically be manipulated
cons: time consuming
- extra care needed to not disturb the natural behavioral dynamic.
what is participant observation? when is this used?
researcher becomes part of the study group. used when it is not possible for the researcher to be inconspicuous
- used with under cover cops
pros and cons of participant observation
pros: you can observe behavior not usually open to inquiry
- high external validity
cons: time consuming
- potentially dangerous
- cop or researcher may side with the people of study and no longer remain objective
what is contrived observation?
aka structured observation. set up a situation so that events and behaviors can be observed. often conducted in a lab or field setting
pros and cons of contrived observation
pros: researchers do not have to wait for behavior to occur
cons: behavior may be less natural
- could reduce external validity
Strengths of general observational research
- observes and records actual behaviors
- often has high external validity
- is flexible. you can study triggers, the behavior it self, and the aftermath of the behavior
weakness of general observation research
- you are spying on people
- violating privacy
- describes behaviors NOT CAUSES.
Survey research design
using survey to obtain self-reported answers and a description of a particular group of individuals. allows mass gathering of info
goal of survey design
to obtain an accurate picture of individuals. allows researchers to focus on specific characteristics by asking different questions.
4 main issues of survey research
1) types of questions asked
2) question assembly and organization
3) selection process: you need a representative sample
4) administration of survey: phone? mail? door to door?
3 main types of questions
1) open ended
2) rating scale
3) restricted/closed questions
pros and cons of open ended questions
pros: - flexible, allows participants to answer in their own words
- few restrictions
- more likely to receive true answers
cons; hard to categorize
- participants may approach questions from a different perspective than the researcher.
- limited if participants cannot adequately express themselves (you cant test mentally retarded people with open ended questions)
pros and cons of restricted questions
pros - easy to categorize
- you can quantify the answers
- can average responses
cons
- may not be entirely accurate
- people may haphazardly select an option
what are rating scale questions
select numerical values on a predetermined scale.
what is a likert scale
rating scale presented as a horizontal line with different response options along the line, and EQUAL SPACING between choices.
why do researchers usually use a 1-5 scale instead of a 1-20 or 1-10?
1) participants tend to avoid extreme answers. Most people will not rank a “20” for “ i don’t like cheese.”
2) participants usually merge upper levels together, which is why researchers only use rankings 1-5. People are less likely to merge 4-5 than 9-10
anchors
opposite extremes are identified with verbal labels to establish end points on the scale
- middle categories are often neutral
ex/ 1= hate cheese 3=meh 5= love cheese
cons of rating scale questions. how do you over come them?
people have RESPONSE SETS: participants tend to use the same response to answer most questions (ex/ say neutral for them all)
solution: they need to use a mixture of positive and negative questions, or alternative phrasings of the same item
pros of rating scale questions.
produces numerical values that can be treated as measurements from an interval scale. easy to understand and answer, and you’re able to collect a lot of data in single
semantic differential
list opposite adjectives and asked to use scale to rate how well each adjective describes a particular individual.
ex/ messy ———- clean
T/F: you should place sensitive questions in the beginning of the survey to get them over with
false sensitive info should be placed in the center so people are most likely to complete the survey
Where should demographic questions be placed in the survey?
at the end of the survey
pros and cons of a mail survey
pros; convenient for participants to complete at home
- non threatening and anonymous
cons; - cannot be sure who filled out the survey
- low response rate
- nonresponse bias enhances volunteer bias
methods to increase response rates in a mail survey
1) cover letter
2) gift
3) give participants an advanced warning and provide follow up after the survey is received
pros and cons of telephone survey
pros- conducted from home and office
- can contact a fairly large amount of people in short time
cons
- time consuming
- increased staff needed
- relatively low response
- may not be representative; people with private phone numbers will not be accessed
- interview bias
methods to improve response rate in telephone survey
1) keep questions shorts with few response alternatives
2) practice reading questions out loud
3) identify yourself and the survey
internet survey pros and cons
pros
- links to survey from existing websites
- can reach a lot of people
- saves time and money
cons
- sample may differ from internet users in general and people not on the internet
- difficult to control sample responses
- hard to identify and select people that participated in the survey
pros and cons of in person surveys and interviews
pros;
- 100% response rate hopefully
- deeper investigation
- gather info from those who cannot answer printed questions
cons
- interviewer bias
- attitude and attributes of interview may influence responses
strengths and weaknesses of surveys in general
1) flexible, relatively easy way to collect large amounts of info
cons:
- low response rate
-non response rate enhances voluntary bias
- reponses can be difficult to analyze depending on question time
-depends on accuracy and truthfulness of participants.
what is a case study design
an in-depth study and detailed decription of a single individual
- may involve intervention or treatment
- commonly used in clinical psychology
what is case history?
a case study that does not include any treatment or intervention.
applications of case studied
1) clinical
2) exemptions to the rules
3) once in a life time events
4) can lead to theories
example of case study
piaget and child development.
pros of case study
- intense detail
- able to demonstrate exceptions to rules
- can establish boundaries of a treatment application
- powerful and convincing, more personal and vivid
cons of case study
describes but does not identiify underlying mechanisms or causes that explain behavior
- lacks internal and external validity.
- bias may obscure interpretation of results.
- participant may exaggerate or minimize events.
difference between case study and case history
case study looks at one individual and may provide treatment. case history looks at one individual and DOES NOT provide treatment.
