Chapter 13: Descriptive Research Strategies

Question 1

descriptive research

Answer 1

measuring a variable or a set of varaibles as they exist naturally.

Question 2

do descriptive research methods explain causal relationships?

Answer 2

no

Question 3

3 types of descriptive research design

Answer 3

1) observational research
2) survey research
3) case study research

Question 4

in an observational reserach design, researchers ___ and ___ record the behavior of individuals.

Answer 4

in an observational reserach design, researchers OBSERVE and SYSTEMATICALLY record the behavior of individuals.

Question 5

typically, observational research designs observe overt ___

Answer 5

behavior

Question 6

problems with behavioral observation

Answer 6

1) reactivity: is it important to not disrupt or influence the behaviors of the people being studied
2) subjective interpretation: there may be observer bias because researcher may selectively report behavior.

Question 7

Solutions to reactivity:

Answer 7

you could conceal the observer (ethics)

you could allow for habituation time: repeated exposure until the observer’s presence is no longer a novel stimulus

Question 8

habituation

Answer 8

repeated exposure until the observer’s presence is no longer a novel stimulus

Question 9

solutions to observer bias and subjective interpretation

Answer 9

1) operantly define behaviours
2) well trained observers that are not associated with the study
3) calculating inter-rater reliability: calculating the correlation of agreement between observers’ scores

Question 10

three methods in quantifying behavioral observations

Answer 10

1) frequency method: counting instances of behavior in a fixed period
2) duration method: recording how much time an individual spends engaged in a behavior
3) interval method. dividing the observation period into a series of intervals and then recording whether a specific behavior occurs during each interval.

Question 11

unlike frequency or duration methods, interval methods of quantifying behavior allows researchers to ___ both frequency and duration into a more ____ measurement.

Answer 11

interval methods of quantifying behavior allows researchers to BALANCE both frequency and duration into a more REPRESENTATIVE measurement.

Question 12

in complex situations, one method of observation is ___

Answer 12

sampling observations, where researchers record what is happening for further study of multiple variables later on

Question 13

how to take good sample observations in complex situations? (3 different methods)

Answer 13

1) time sampling: observe record observe record
2) event sampling: identify a specific event or behaviour to be observed and recorded during the first interval, and then focus on a different behaviour on the next interval.
3) individual sampling: identify one participant to be observed during the first interval, then a different individual for a second interval.

Question 14

how is content analysis/archival research conducted

Answer 14

applying techniques from behavioral observation to situations that do not involve direct observation of behaviors

Question 15

content analysis

Answer 15

measures the occurrences of events in literature or texts that present replicas of a certain behavior

Question 16

archival research

Answer 16

looking at historic records to measure behaviours of events that occurred in the past

Question 17

overall measurement process of a non complicated observation

Answer 17

1) establish behavioral definitions
2) use the frequency method, the duration method or the interval method to obtain and quantify the behavioral data
3) use multiple observers to increase inter-rater reliability

Question 18

three main types of behavioural observation

Answer 18

1) naturalistic observation
2) participant observation
3) contrived observation

Question 19

what is naturalistic observation?

Answer 19

aka non participant observation. study behaviour in a natural setting without intervening anyway. researcher tries to be as unobtrusive as possible.

Question 20

pros and cons of naturalistic observation

Answer 20

pros: can be used to describe any behavior
- insight into real-world behavior
- high external validity
- good at examining behaviors hat cannot ethically be manipulated

cons: time consuming
- extra care needed to not disturb the natural behavioral dynamic.

Question 21

what is participant observation? when is this used?

Answer 21

researcher becomes part of the study group. used when it is not possible for the researcher to be inconspicuous
- used with under cover cops

Question 22

pros and cons of participant observation

Answer 22

pros: you can observe behavior not usually open to inquiry
- high external validity

cons: time consuming
- potentially dangerous
- cop or researcher may side with the people of study and no longer remain objective

Question 23

what is contrived observation?

Answer 23

aka structured observation. set up a situation so that events and behaviors can be observed. often conducted in a lab or field setting

Question 24

pros and cons of contrived observation

Answer 24

pros: researchers do not have to wait for behavior to occur

cons: behavior may be less natural
- could reduce external validity

Question 25

Strengths of general observational research

Answer 25

• observes and records actual behaviors
• often has high external validity
• is flexible. you can study triggers, the behavior it self, and the aftermath of the behavior

Question 26

weakness of general observation research

Answer 26

• you are spying on people
• violating privacy
• describes behaviors NOT CAUSES.

Question 27

Survey research design

Answer 27

using survey to obtain self-reported answers and a description of a particular group of individuals. allows mass gathering of info

Question 28

goal of survey design

Answer 28

to obtain an accurate picture of individuals. allows researchers to focus on specific characteristics by asking different questions.

Question 29

4 main issues of survey research

Answer 29

1) types of questions asked
2) question assembly and organization
3) selection process: you need a representative sample
4) administration of survey: phone? mail? door to door?

Question 30

3 main types of questions

Answer 30

1) open ended
2) rating scale
3) restricted/closed questions

Question 31

pros and cons of open ended questions

Answer 31

pros: - flexible, allows participants to answer in their own words
- few restrictions
- more likely to receive true answers

cons; hard to categorize

• participants may approach questions from a different perspective than the researcher.
• limited if participants cannot adequately express themselves (you cant test mentally retarded people with open ended questions)

Question 32

pros and cons of restricted questions

Answer 32

pros - easy to categorize

• you can quantify the answers
• can average responses

cons

• may not be entirely accurate
• people may haphazardly select an option

Question 33

what are rating scale questions

Answer 33

select numerical values on a predetermined scale.

Question 34

what is a likert scale

Answer 34

rating scale presented as a horizontal line with different response options along the line, and EQUAL SPACING between choices.

Question 35

why do researchers usually use a 1-5 scale instead of a 1-20 or 1-10?

Answer 35

1) participants tend to avoid extreme answers. Most people will not rank a “20” for “ i don’t like cheese.”
2) participants usually merge upper levels together, which is why researchers only use rankings 1-5. People are less likely to merge 4-5 than 9-10

Question 36

anchors

Answer 36

opposite extremes are identified with verbal labels to establish end points on the scale

• middle categories are often neutral
  ex/ 1= hate cheese 3=meh 5= love cheese

Question 37

cons of rating scale questions. how do you over come them?

Answer 37

people have RESPONSE SETS: participants tend to use the same response to answer most questions (ex/ say neutral for them all)

solution: they need to use a mixture of positive and negative questions, or alternative phrasings of the same item

Question 38

pros of rating scale questions.

Answer 38

produces numerical values that can be treated as measurements from an interval scale. easy to understand and answer, and you’re able to collect a lot of data in single

Question 39

semantic differential

Answer 39

list opposite adjectives and asked to use scale to rate how well each adjective describes a particular individual.

ex/ messy ———- clean

Question 40

T/F: you should place sensitive questions in the beginning of the survey to get them over with

Answer 40

false sensitive info should be placed in the center so people are most likely to complete the survey

Question 41

Where should demographic questions be placed in the survey?

Answer 41

at the end of the survey

Question 42

pros and cons of a mail survey

Answer 42

pros; convenient for participants to complete at home
- non threatening and anonymous

cons; - cannot be sure who filled out the survey

• low response rate
• nonresponse bias enhances volunteer bias

Question 43

methods to increase response rates in a mail survey

Answer 43

1) cover letter
2) gift
3) give participants an advanced warning and provide follow up after the survey is received

Question 44

pros and cons of telephone survey

Answer 44

pros- conducted from home and office
- can contact a fairly large amount of people in short time

cons

• time consuming
• increased staff needed
• relatively low response
• may not be representative; people with private phone numbers will not be accessed
• interview bias

Question 45

methods to improve response rate in telephone survey

Answer 45

1) keep questions shorts with few response alternatives
2) practice reading questions out loud
3) identify yourself and the survey

Question 46

internet survey pros and cons

Answer 46

pros

• links to survey from existing websites
• can reach a lot of people
• saves time and money

cons

• sample may differ from internet users in general and people not on the internet
• difficult to control sample responses
• hard to identify and select people that participated in the survey

Question 47

pros and cons of in person surveys and interviews

Answer 47

pros;

• 100% response rate hopefully
• deeper investigation
• gather info from those who cannot answer printed questions

cons

• interviewer bias
• attitude and attributes of interview may influence responses

Question 48

strengths and weaknesses of surveys in general

Answer 48

1) flexible, relatively easy way to collect large amounts of info
cons:
- low response rate
-non response rate enhances voluntary bias
- reponses can be difficult to analyze depending on question time
-depends on accuracy and truthfulness of participants.

Question 49

what is a case study design

Answer 49

an in-depth study and detailed decription of a single individual

• may involve intervention or treatment
• commonly used in clinical psychology

Question 50

what is case history?

Answer 50

a case study that does not include any treatment or intervention.

Question 51

applications of case studied

Answer 51

1) clinical
2) exemptions to the rules
3) once in a life time events
4) can lead to theories

Question 52

example of case study

Answer 52

piaget and child development.

Question 53

pros of case study

Answer 53

• intense detail
• able to demonstrate exceptions to rules
• can establish boundaries of a treatment application
• powerful and convincing, more personal and vivid

Question 54

cons of case study

Answer 54

describes but does not identiify underlying mechanisms or causes that explain behavior

• lacks internal and external validity.
• bias may obscure interpretation of results.
• participant may exaggerate or minimize events.

Question 55

difference between case study and case history

Answer 55

case study looks at one individual and may provide treatment. case history looks at one individual and DOES NOT provide treatment.