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Anatomy & Physiology > Chapter 3 > Flashcards

Chapter 3 Flashcards

1
Q

plasma membrane

A

cell membrane

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2
Q

nuclear envelope

A

a double membrane with nuclear pores that surround nucleus

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3
Q

cytoplasm

A

where most cell activities take place

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4
Q

chromatin

A

dispersed, thin strands of DNA and associated proteins in nucleus, which condenses to become visible mitotic chromosomes during cell division

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5
Q

nucleolus

A

consists of ribosomal RNA and proteins

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6
Q

ribosome

A

site of protein synthesis

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7
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

synthesizes proteins and transports them to the golgi apparatus

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8
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

Manufactures lipids and carbohydrates; detoxifies harmful chemicals; stores calcium

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9
Q

golgi apparatus

A

Modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use

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10
Q

lysosome

A

Membrane-bound vesicle pinched off Golgi apparatus; contains digestive enzymes

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11
Q

Peroxisome

A

Serves as one site of lipid and amino acid degradation; breaks down hydrogen peroxide

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12
Q

Proteasomes

A

Tubelike protein complexes in the cytoplasm; Break down proteins in the cytoplasm

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13
Q

Mitochondria

A

ATP synthesis

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14
Q

Centrioles

A

Pair of cylindrical organelles in the centrosome, consisting of triplets of parallel microtubules; Serve as centers for microtubule formation; determine cell polarity during cell division; form the basal bodies of cilia and flagella

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15
Q

Flagellum

A

Extension of the plasma membrane; propels spermatozoa

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16
Q

Microvilli

A

Extension of the plasma membrane containing microfilaments; Increase surface area of the plasma membrane for absorption and secretion; modified to form sensory receptors

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17
Q

membrane potential

A

regulation of ion movement by cells results in a charge difference across the plasma membrane

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18
Q

glycocalyx

A

collection of glycolipids, glycoproteins, and carbohydrates on the outer surface of the plasma membrane.

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19
Q

Phospholipids

A

assemble to form a lipid bilayer

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20
Q

lipid bilayer

A

double layer of phospholipid molecules

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21
Q

fluid-mosaic model

A

suggests that the plasma membrane is neither rigid nor static in structure but is highly flexible and can change its shape and composition through time.

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22
Q

Cholesterol

A

other major lipid in the plasma membrane; limits the movement of phospholipids, providing stability to the plasma membrane

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23
Q

integral proteins (or intrinsic proteins )

A

protein molecules that penetrate deeply into the lipid bilayer, in many cases extending from one surface to the other

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24
Q

peripheral proteins (or extrinsic proteins )

A

attached to either the inner or the outer surfaces of the lipid bilayer.

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25
Q

marker molecules

A

cell surface molecules that allow cells to identify other cells or other molecules.

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26
Q

glycoproteins

A

proteins with attached carbohydrates

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27
Q

glycolipids

A

lipids with attached carbohydrates

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28
Q

attachment proteins

A

allow cells to attach to other cells or to extracellular molecules

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29
Q

Cadherins

A

proteins that attach cells to other cells

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30
Q

integrins

A

proteins that attach cells to extracellular molecules.

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31
Q

transport proteins

A

integral proteins that allow ions or molecules to move from one side of the plasma membrane to the other.

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32
Q

Channel proteins

A

one or more integral proteins arranged so that they form a tiny channel through the plasma membrane

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33
Q

leak ion channels or non-gated ion channels

A

channel proteins that are always open and are responsible for the plasma membrane’s permeability to ions when the plasma membrane is at rest.

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34
Q

gated ion channels

A

channel proteins that can be open or closed.

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35
Q

ligands

A

small molecules that bind to the proteins or glycoproteins.

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36
Q

ligand-gated ion channels

A

gated ion channels that open or close in response to

chemical signals or ligands

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37
Q

voltage-gated ion channels

A

gated ion channels that open or close when there is a change in charge across the plasma membrane

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38
Q

Carrier proteins or transporters

A

integral membrane proteins that move ions or molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to the other.

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39
Q

Uniport

A

the movement of one specific ion or molecule across the membrane.

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40
Q

Symport

A

the movement of two different ions or molecules in the same direction across the plasma membrane

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41
Q

antiport

A

the movement of two different ions or molecules in opposite directions across the plasma membrane.

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42
Q

ATP-powered pumps

A

transport proteins that move specific ions and molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to the other.

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43
Q

Receptor proteins

A

proteins or glycoproteins in the plasma membrane that have an exposed receptor site on the outer cell surface

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44
Q

cystic fibrosis

A

a genetic disorder that affects chloride ion channels.

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45
Q

G protein complex

A

located on the inner surface of the plasma membrane which acts as an intermediary between a receptor and other cellular proteins.

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46
Q

selectively permeable

A

allows only certain substances to pass through it.

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47
Q

vesicle

A

small, membrane-bound sac that can transport large, non-lipid-soluble molecules, small pieces of matter and even whole cells across the plasma membrane

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48
Q

Diffusion

A

the movement of solutes from an area of higher solute concentration to an area of lower solute concentration

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49
Q

concentration gradient

A

The concentration difference between two points, divided by the distance between the two points

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50
Q

Viscosity

A

a measure of how easily a liquid flows

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51
Q

Osmosis

A

the diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane

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52
Q

Selectively permeable

A

the membrane allows water but not all the solutes dissolved in the water to diffuse through it.

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53
Q

Aquaporins or water channel proteins

A

increase membrane permeability to water in some cell types, such as kidney cells.

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54
Q

Osmotic pressure

A

the force required to prevent water from moving by osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane.

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55
Q

isosmotic

A

Solutions with the same concentration of solute particles that have the same osmotic pressure even if the types of solute particles in the two solutions differ from each other.

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56
Q

hyperosmotic

A

solution that has a greater concentration of solute particles, and therefore a greater osmotic pressure than another solution

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57
Q

hyposmotic

A

when a solution is more dilute, with the lower osmotic pressure compared with the more concentrated solution.

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58
Q

isotonic

A

when a cell placed into a solution neither shrinks nor swells

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59
Q

tonicity

A

the shape of the cell remains constant, maintaining its internal tension or tone

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60
Q

hypertonic

A

when a cell is placed into a solution and water moves out of the cell by osmosis, causing the cell to shrink

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61
Q

hypotonic

A

when a cell is placed into a solution and water moves into the cell by osmosis, causing the cell to swell

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62
Q

crenation

A

in red blood cells, when water moves by osmosis from the cell into the hypertonic solution, causing the cell to shrinks

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63
Q

lysis

A

when a cell swells too much and ruptures

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64
Q

Mediated transport

A

the process by which transport proteins mediate, or assist, the movement of large, water-soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules or ions across the plasma membrane.

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65
Q

Specificity

A

each transport protein binds to and transports only a single type of molecule or ion

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66
Q

Competition

A

the result of similar molecules binding to the transport protein

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67
Q

Saturation

A

the rate of movement of molecules across the membrane

is limited by the number of available transport proteins

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68
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

a carrier-mediated or channel-mediated process that moves substances into or out of cells from a higher to a lower concentration

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69
Q

Active transport

A

a mediated transport process that requires energy provided by ATP; can move from lower to higher concentrations

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70
Q

sodium-potassium pump; sodium-potassium ATP-ase

A

active transport system that moves Na + out of cells and K + into cells

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71
Q

Secondary active transport

A

involves the active transport of an ion, such as sodium, out of a cell, establishing a concentration gradient, with a higher concentration of the ions outside the cell.

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72
Q

Endocytosis

A

the uptake of material through the plasma membrane by the formation of a vesicle; phagocytosis and pinocytosis

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73
Q

receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

when the plasma membrane contains specific receptor molecules that recognize certain substances and allow them to be transported into the cell by phagocytosis or pinocytosis.

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74
Q

Hypercholesterolemia

A

common genetic disorder characterized by the reduction in or absence of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptors on cell surfaces, which interferes with the receptor-mediated endocytosis of LDL cholesterol; results in too much production of cholestrol

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75
Q

exocytosis

A

when secretions accumulate within vesicles, move to the plasma membrane, and fuse there, then contents are expelled from the cell.

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76
Q

Cytosol

A

fluid portion of the cytoplasm, which contains the cytoskeleton and cytoplasmic inclusions.

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77
Q

cytoskeleton

A

supports the cell and holds the nucleus and other organelles in place.

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78
Q

Microtubules

A

hollow tubes composed primarily of protein units called tubulin; help provide support and structure to the cytoplasm of the cell, much like an internal scaffolding; they are involved in cell division and in the transport of intracellular materials; and they form essential components of certain cell organelles, such as centrioles, spindle fibers,
cilia, and flagella.

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79
Q

Actin filaments or microfilaments

A

small fibrils that form bundles, sheets, or networks in the
cytoplasm; provide structure to the cytoplasm and mechanical support for microvilli, support the plasma membrane, and define the shape of the cell.

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80
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

protein fibers that provide mechanical strength to cells and support the extensions of nerve cells.

81
Q

cytoplasmic inclusions

A

aggregates of chemicals either produced or taken in by the cell; contained in cytosol

82
Q

lipo-chromes

A

pigments that increase in amount with age.

83
Q

nuclear pores

A

At many points on the surface of the nuclear envelope, the

inner and outer membranes fuse to form porelike structures

84
Q

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A

mostly found within the nucleus with small amounts found within mitochondria; DNA and associated proteins are organized into chromosomes and histones

85
Q

histones

A

important for the structural organization of DNA

86
Q

chromatin

A

During most of the cell’s life cycle, the chromosomes are dispersed throughout the nucleus as these delicate filaments; during cell division the dispersed chromatin
becomes densely coiled, forming compact chromosomes.

87
Q

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

A

can leave the nucleus through nuclear pores;

88
Q

gene

A

A sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule that specifies the structure of a protein or RNA molecule

89
Q

Ribosomes

A

sites of protein synthesis; consist of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

and proteins; produced separately in the nucleolus

90
Q

Free ribosomes

A

primarily synthesize proteins used inside the cell, whereas ribosomes attached to the endoplasmic reticulum usually produce proteins that are secreted from the cell.

91
Q

cisternae

A

interior spaces of organelle sacs and tubules that are isolated from the rest of the cytoplasm.

92
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

manufactures lipids, such as phospholipids, cholesterol, and steroid hormones, as well as carbohydrates; phospholipids help form vesicles; enzymes help reduce chemical toxicity

93
Q

rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

where proteins are produced and modified for secretion and for internal use.

94
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids manufactured by the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticula

95
Q

transport vesicles

A

proteins produced in ribosomes and packaged into transport vesicles that move to the Golgi apparatus, fuse with the Golgi membrane, and release the protein into the Golgi apparatus cisterna.

96
Q

secretory vesicles

A

membrane-bound; pinch off from the Golgi, move to the surface of the cell, their membranes fuse with the plasma membrane, and the contents of the vesicle are released to the exterior by exocytosis.

97
Q

Lysosomes

A

membrane-bound vesicles that form at the Golgi; contain a variety of hydrolytic enzymes that function as intracellular digestive systems.

98
Q

autophagia

A

when lysosomes also digest the organelles of the cell that are no longer functional

99
Q

Peroxisomes

A

membrane-bound vesicles; smaller than lysosomes; contain enzymes that break down fatty and amino acids; hydrogen peroxide is a byproduct of the breakdown.

100
Q

catalase

A

enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen.

101
Q

Pompe disease

A

rare genetic disorder caused by the inability of lysosomal enzymes to break down glycogen.

102
Q

Familial hyperlipoproteinemia

A

group of genetic disorders that occur when large amounts of lipids accumulate in phagocytic cells that lack the normal enzymes required to break down the lipid droplets.

103
Q

Mucopolysaccharidoses, such as Hurler syndrome

A

genetic diseases in which lysosomal enzymes are unable to break down mucopolysaccharides (glycosaminoglycans), so these molecules accumulate in the lysosomes of connective tissue cells and nerve cells.

104
Q

Proteasomes

A

consist of large protein complexes, including several enzymes that break down and recycle other proteins within the cell.

105
Q

cristae

A

infoldings that project like shelves into the interior of the mitochondrion.

106
Q

matrix

A

substance located in the space formed by the inner membrane.

107
Q

mitochondrial diseases

A

Disorders that result from changes in mitochondrial genes that can lead to disruptions in normal ATP synthesis, reducing the amount of ATP produced by the cells.

108
Q

Leber hereditary optic neuropathy

A

results in sudden vision loss due to optic nerve degeneration.

109
Q

centrosome

A

specialized zone of cytoplasm close to the nucleus; center of microtubule formation in the cell.

110
Q

spindle fibers

A

extend out in all directions from the centrosome; attaches to a chromosome and stops growing or shrinking during cell division.

111
Q

Dynein arms

A

proteins connecting adjacent pairs of microtubules

112
Q

basal body

A

modified centriole

113
Q

Flagella

A

similar structure to cilia, but longer; sperm

114
Q

Genes

A

functional units of heredity, the transmission of genetic traits from parent to offspring.

115
Q

gene expression

A

production of proteins from the information stored in DNA; involves transcription and translation

116
Q

transcription

A

copy of; transcription is the synthesis of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA based on the nucleotide sequence in DNA

117
Q

translation

A

changing of something from one form to another

118
Q

transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

transport molecules that transfer RNA (tRNA) and carry the amino acids to the ribosomes

119
Q

RNA polymerase

A

enzyme that synthesizes the complementary RNA molecule from DNA.

120
Q

promoter

A

a DNA nucleotide sequence that RNA polymerase attaches to; the attachment of RNA polymerase to the promoter causes a portion of the DNA molecule to unwind, exposing the nucleotide sequence

121
Q

transcription factors

A

other proteins that the RNA must first associate with in order to interact with the DNA.

122
Q

terminator

A

a DNA nucleotide sequence that when RNA polymerase

encounters it, it detaches from the DNA, releasing the newly formed mRNA.

123
Q

exons

A

Regions of the mRNA that code for proteins

124
Q

introns

A

non-protein-coding regions

125
Q

pre-mRNA

A

An mRNA that contains introns; functional mRNA consists only of exons

126
Q

posttranscriptional processing

A

modifications made before a pre-mRNA leaves the nucleus, which produces the functional mRNA that is used in translation to produce a protein

127
Q

poly-A tail

A

added to one end of the mRNA and a 7-methyl guanosine cap is added to the other end; ensure that mRNA travels from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and interacts with ribosomes during translation

128
Q

alternative splicing

A

when various combinations of exons are incorporated into mRNA

129
Q

genetic code

A

information contained in mRNA

130
Q

codons

A

genetic code is carried in these sets of three nucleotide units

131
Q

start codon

A

signals the beginning of translation

132
Q

stop codons

A

signal the end of translation

133
Q

ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

A

The function of tRNA is to match a specific amino acid to a specific codon of mRNA.

134
Q

anticodon

A

consists of three nucleotides and is complementary to a particular codon of mRNA

135
Q

polyribosome

A

resulting cluster of ribosomes attached to the mRNA after a ribosome uses the initial part of mRNA, another ribosome can attach to the mRNA and begin to make a protein

136
Q

proproteins

A

longer when they are first made than in their final, functional state; extra piece of the molecule is cleaved off by enzymes to make the proprotein into a functional protein.

137
Q

proenzymes

A

the proproteins of the proteins that are enzymes

138
Q

posttranslational processing

A

various modifications to proteins

139
Q

cell life cycle

A

the changes a cell undergoes from the time it is formed until it divides to produce two new cells; two stages: interphase and cell division (mitosis and cytokinesis)

140
Q

Interphase

A

phase between cell divisions; 90% or more of the life cycle of a typical cell is spent in interphase.

141
Q

DNA replication

A

process by which two new strands of DNA are made, using the two existing strands as templates.

142
Q

DNA polymerase

A

an enzyme that adds new nucleotides to the 3′ end of the growing strands.

143
Q

leading strand

A

forms as a continuous strand

144
Q

lagging strand

A

forms in short segments called Okazaki fragments .

145
Q

DNA ligase

A

splic Okazaki fragments

146
Q

Mitosis

A

division of a cell’s chromosomes into two new nuclei, each of which has the same amount and type of DNA as the original nucleus.

147
Q

mitotic chromosomes

A

During mitosis, the chromatin becomes very densely coiled to form these compact chromosomes

148
Q

chromatids

A

one of the two copies of the original chromosome each mitotic chromosome consists of

149
Q

centromere

A

where the chromatids are attached

150
Q

kinetochore

A

protein structure that binds the centromere and provides a point of attachment for microtubules that will move the chromatids during mitosis

151
Q

prophase

A

chromatin condenses to form mitotic chromosomes; spindle fibers extend from the centrioles to the centromeres of the chromosomes; the centrioles divide and migrate to each pole of the cell; in late prophase, the nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear.

152
Q

metaphase

A

chromosomes align near the center of the cell.

153
Q

anaphase

A

the chromatids separate; at this point, two identical sets of chromosomes are moved by the spindle fibers toward the centrioles at one of the poles of the cell. At the end of anaphase, each set of chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to divide.

154
Q

telophase

A

nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes to form two separate nuclei; The chromosomes begin to uncoil and resemble the genetic material characteristic of interphase.

155
Q

Cytokinesis

A

division of the cell’s cytoplasm to produce two new cells.

156
Q

cleavage furrow

A

an indentation of the plasma membrane that forms midway between the centrioles.

157
Q

Genetics

A

the study of heredity—that is, the characteristics children inherit from their parents.

158
Q

Mendelian genetics

A

study of how genetic traits are passed from parent to offspring

159
Q

genomic medicine

A

genetic approach to the diagnosis and management of disease

160
Q

gametes

A

sex cells

161
Q

genotype

A

The genes an organism has for a given trait

162
Q

phenotype

A

The expression of the genes as a trait

163
Q

alleles

A

Alternate forms of genes

164
Q

dominant allele

A

mask the effects of the recessive allele for that trait

165
Q

homozygous

A

the two alleles for the trait are identical

166
Q

heterozygous

A

the two alleles for the trait are different

167
Q

polydactyly

A

has extra fingers or toes; dominant expression

168
Q

Somatic cells

A

all the cells of the body except the gametes.

169
Q

diploid number

A

normal number of chromosomes in a somatic cell; 46 chromosomes

170
Q

haploid

A

normal number of chromosomes in a gamete; 23 chromosomes

171
Q

autosomal chromosomes

A

all the chromosomes except the sex chromosomes; 22 pairs

172
Q

sex chromosomes

A

determines the sex of the individual; 1 pair; X or Y chromosomes

173
Q

karyotype

A

a display of the chromosomes of a somatic cell during metaphase of mitosis.

174
Q

homologous chromosomes

A

Chromosome pairs; each member of the pair is a homolog; 1 from mother, 1 from father

175
Q

genome

A

all the genes found in the haploid number of chromosomes from one parent.

176
Q

locus

A

location, on a chromosome; each gene of the genome occupies a specific locus

177
Q

multiple alleles

A

alleles can exist in many forms; Differences in alleles arise by mutation

178
Q

allelic variant

A

different form of an allele, or mutated allele (gene), or a polymorphism (many forms).

179
Q

phenylketonuria (PKU)

A

autosomal recessive trait with multiple alleles.

180
Q

complete dominance

A

homozygous dominant and the heterozygote had the same phenotype

181
Q

codominance

A

two alleles at the same locus are expressed so that separate, distinguishable phenotypes occur at the same time; blood types

182
Q

incomplete dominance

A

the dominant allele does not completely mask the effects of the recessive allele in the heterozygote; beta, major, and minor thalassemia

183
Q

polygenic traits

A

result from the interactions of many genes; height, intelligence, eye color, and skin color.

184
Q

Sex-linked traits

A

traits affected by genes on the sex chromosomes

185
Q

X-linked traits

A

affected by genes on the X chromosome; most sex-linked traits are X-linked

186
Q

Y-linked traits

A

affected by genes on the Y chromosome.

187
Q

meiosis

A

cell division that reduces chromosome number by half; gametes are produced that have one homolog from each of the homologous pairs of chromosomes.

188
Q

carrier

A

carrier for a recessive trait is a person who is heterozygous for that trait, with one normal allele and one disorder-causing allele. The carrier does not exhibit the disorder
but can pass it on to his or her children.

189
Q

genetic disorder

A

a failure of structure, function, or both as a result of abnormalities in a person’s genetic makeup- DNA

190
Q

mutagens

A

Agents that cause mutations

191
Q

point mutation

A

A mutation involving a single nucleotide change

192
Q

structural mutations

A

Mutations that change the sequence or number of nucleotides involve changes in chromosome structure

193
Q

nondisjunction

A

As the chromosomes separate during meiosis, the two members of a homologous pair may not segregate as they normally do. As a result, one of the daughter cells receives both chromosomes, and the other daughter cell receives none.

194
Q

aneuploidy

A

zygote with 47 chromosomes or 45 chromosomes rather

than the normal 46

195
Q

Down syndrome or trisomy 21

A

type of aneuploidy in which three chromosomes 21 are present.

196
Q

syndrome

A

set of signs and symptoms occurring together as the result of a single cause, such as a single mutation or one extra chromosome

197
Q

Cancer

A

usually results from a series of somatic mutations that cause uncontrolled cell division and changes in the normal functions of cells.

198
Q

genomic map

A

depicts the DNA nucleotide sequences of the genes and their locations on the chromosomes

199
Q

gene therapy or genetic engineering

A

repairs or replaces defective genes or gene products, resulting in cures or treatments for genetic disorders.

Anatomy & Physiology (10 decks)

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