CHAPTER 3 Flashcards
evidence in crimes of violence is very obvious such that we need not place emphasis on this.
BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS
The test for the identification of ____ is employed as an important part of the routine investigation in many cases of violent death.
blood
The specimen usually submitted is ________. Very often it is brought to the laboratory in the form of dried red or brown stains on weapons, clothing or other objects.
fresh blood or fluid blood, dried blood and clotted blood
Very often it is brought to the laboratory in the form of dried red or brown stains on weapons, clothing or other objects.
BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS
-It is the red fluid of the blood vessels.
BLOOD
– This refers to as highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic substances.
BLOOD
is opaque.
BLOOD
-On treatment with either, water or other reagents becomes transparent and assumes lake color.
BLOOD
-It is faintly alkaline.
BLOOD
-Normal pH is 7.35 to 7.45
BLOOD
-Normal pH of blood is?
7.35 to 7.45
burn acid on white blood cells (wbc) and red blood cells (rbc) on cells
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
–viscous substance
BLOOD
–it is always present in crime scene
BLOOD
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD
a. AS CIRCUMSTANTIAL OR CORROBORATIVE EVIDENCE AGAINST OR IN FAVOR OF THE PERPETRATOR
b. FOR DISPUTED PARENTAGE
c. DETERMINATION OF THE CAUSE OF DEATH AND THE LENGTH OF TIME THE VICTIM SURVIVED THE ATTACK
d. DETERMINATION OF THE DIRECTION OF ESCAPE OF THE VICTIM OR THE ASSAILANT
e. DETERMINATION OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FLOW OF BLOOD
f. DETERMINATION OF THE APPROXIMATE TIME THE CRIME WAS COMMITTED
Is blood can be use as direct evidence?
YES AS LONG AS IT HAS DNA
carries our own genetic makeup
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
is the most reliable means to determine parental kineme
DNA ANALYSIS
NATURE OF BLOOD
a. LARGEST CIRCULATING TISSUE OF THE BODY
b. CONSISTS OF VITAL SUBSTANCES
c. FLUID THAT CIRCULATES INTO THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM (CVS)
FUNCTION OF BLOOD
a. TRANSPORT OF GASES (O2 AND CO2), NUTRIENTS AND WASTES
b. BLOOD REGULATES BODY TEMPERATURE
c. BLOOD REGULATES PH OF THE BODY FLUIDS
d. BLOOD CARRIES INJECTED AND OTHERWISE GIVEN MEDICINES TO THE AFFECTED PARTS OF THE BODY
nirerelease wherein it is a waste through perspiration, burp
CO2 OR CARBON DIOXIDE
–the fastest move in drugs is through
INJECTION
is consistent like water
ALKALINE
regenerate our body
O2 or OXYGEN
– aka CAPILLARY BLOOD
ARTERIAL BLOOD
KINDS OF BLOOD
a. ARTERIAL BLOOD
b. VENOUS BLOOD
- bright red in color and which is oxygenated blood.
ARTERIAL BLOOD
are the largest vein
ARTERIES
– dark red in color, contains increased amount of carbon dioxide and which is non-oxygenated blood.
VENOUS BLOOD
is responsible for red color, normal Pilipino has 200cc, 6 glasses means loss of life, 3 glasses will cause anemia.
HEMOGLOBIN
is responsible for red color of blood which contains iron protein called
GLOBIN (protein) and HEMATIN (organic compound of iron).
(protein)
GLOBIN
is responsible for red color of blood which contains iron protein called GLOBIN (protein) and HEMATIN (organic compound of iron).
HEMOGLOBIN
(organic compound of iron).
HEMATIN
– found in Nitrates and Nitrites poisoning which is chocolate brown in color.
METHEMOGLOBIN (Hbm)
_______ of hemoglobin is present for each 100 cc of blood for adult.
14-17 GRAMS
TYPES OF HEMOGLOBIN
- ABNORMAL DERIVATIVES OF HB
- NORMAL DERIVATIVES OF HEMOGLOBIN
WHAT ARE UNDER THE ABNORMAL DERIVATIVES OF HB
a. METHEMOGLOBIN (Hbm)
b. SULFHEMOGLOBIN (HbS)
c. CARBOXYHEMOGLOBIN (HbCO)
–the burn and unburn component
METHEMOGLOBIN (Hbm)
– found in the presence of bacteria (clostridium perfringens) in severe constipation, enterogenous cyanosis and blood is lavender is color.
SULFHEMOGLOBIN (HbS)
ay bacteria na katulad ng diarrhea
CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS
– excessive inhalation of gas from defective stoves and from automobiles which is cherry red color of blood.
CARBOXYHEMOGLOBIN (HbCO)
–common cause of accidental death and suicide
CARBOXYHEMOGLOBIN (HbCO)
CARBOXYHEMOGLOBIN (HbCO) COLOR IS
cherry red
SULFHEMOGLOBIN (HbS) COLOR IS
LAVANDER
METHEMOGLOBIN (Hbm) COLOR IS
CHOCOLATE BROWN
WHAT ARE UNDER THE NORMAL DERIVATIVES OF HEMOGLOBIN
a. OXYHEMOGLOBIN (HbO2)
b. REDUCED HOMOGLOBIN (HbCO2)
– hemoglobin that is combined with oxygen that gives color to the arterial blood.
OXYHEMOGLOBIN (HbO2)
– hemoglobin that is combined with carbon dioxide that gives color to the venous blood.
REDUCED HOMOGLOBIN (HbCO2)
is lighter than O2
CO2
s not pure liquid, it is 45-50% solid and 55-60% liquid
BLOOD
_____ formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells.
45%
– this contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen to various cells in the body.
RED BLOOD CELLS/ ERYTHROCYTES
WHAT ARE THE SOLID MATERIALS OF THE COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
a. RED BLOOD CELLS/ ERYTHROCYTES
b. WHITE BLOOD CELLS/ LEUCOCYTES
c. PLATELETS/THROMBOCYTES
-It is circular, biconcave discs or rounded edges.
RED BLOOD CELLS/ ERYTHROCYTES
–carry nutrients like oxygen, protein and enzymes
RED BLOOD CELLS/ ERYTHROCYTES
this are masses of nucleated protoplasm.
WHITE BLOOD CELLS/ LEUCOCYTES
-It defends the body from invading microorganisms.
WHITE BLOOD CELLS/ LEUCOCYTES
KINDS OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS
- MONOCYTES
- LYMPHOCYTES
- NEUTROPHILS
- BASOPHILS
- EOSINOPHILS
- It also fights infection.
WHITE BLOOD CELLS/ LEUCOCYTES
–soldier of our body
WHITE BLOOD CELLS/ LEUCOCYTES
- They have a longer lifespan than many white blood cells and help to break down bacteria.
MONOCYTES
–for minutes lang ang buhay
MONOCYTES
- They create antibodies to fight against bacteria, viruses, and other potentially harmful invaders.
LYMPHOCYTES
-They are the most numerous types of white blood cell and your first line of defense when infection strikes.
NEUTROPHILS
- They kill and digest bacteria and fungi.
NEUTROPHILS
-They secrete chemicals such as histamine, a marker of allergic disease, that help control the body’s immune response.
BASOPHILS
- These small cells seem to sound an alarm when infectious agents invade your blood.
BASOPHILS
–it is a warning device
BASOPHILS
- They attack and kill parasites and cancer cells, and help with allergic responses.
EOSINOPHILS
– this are cells that are produced by the bone marrow and are necessary for proper clotting of blood.
PLATELETS/THROMBOCYTES
-It is normally responsible for the retraction of blood clot.
PLATELETS/THROMBOCYTES
– 55- 60% PLASMA is the fluid or portion of blood where the cells are suspended.
Liquid Portion
Liquid portion is composed of:
a. WATER (90%)
b. SOLID (10%)
-It is principally composed of:
a. WATER (90%)
b. SOLID (10%) – largely protein in nature and consist of albumen, several globulins and fibrinogen.
Liquid Portion
WHAT are the colors of blood
RED, ORANGE, WHITE
How many % does blood has in its liquid portion?
55-60%
– largely protein in nature and consist of albumen, several globulins and fibrinogen.
SOLID
What are under the liquid portion of blood?
a. ALBUMEN
b. GLOBULINS
c. PLASMA
d. SERUM
– the most abundant protein in the blood.
ALBUMEN
-It binds with many drugs.
ALBUMEN
– the important role in the immune mechanism of the body.
GLOBULINS
carry drugs as well as sex and thyroid hormones, lipids and iron.
GLOBULINS
– the yellowish fluids of the blood in which numerous blood corpuscles are suspended.
PLASMA
-A Straw – yellow liquid formed when blood to which an oxalate has been added to prevent clotting is allowed to stand.
PLASMA
– A straw – yellowish liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for sometimes and the blood contracts.
SERUM
METHODS OF COLLECTING BLOOD
A. CAPILLARY BLOOD SAMPLE
B. VENOUS BLOOD SAMPLE
c. ARTERIAL BLOOD SAMPLE (VENIPUNCTURE METHOD)
– Skin/Finger/Ring Puncture, arterial blood and small quantity of blood.
CAPILLARY BLOOD SAMPLE
CAPILLARY BLOOD SAMPLE puncture sites are;
- Ring finger (Adult and Children)
- Ear lobes (Adults)
- Heal or Toe (Infants and Children)
– use of lancet or pricker
Heal or Toe (Infants and Children)
– Larger volumes of blood and blood taken from the vein
VENOUS BLOOD SAMPLE
VENOUS BLOOD SAMPLE sites are
- Cephalic Vein
- Medial Cephalic Vein
- Basilic Vein
- Jugular Vein
– Larger volumes of blood and blood taken from the arteries
ARTERIAL BLOOD SAMPLE (VENIPUNCTURE METHOD)
ARTERIAL BLOOD SAMPLE (VENIPUNCTURE METHOD) sites are?
- Radial Artery- baba ng kamay
2. Brachial Artery – harap ng siko
3. Femoral Artery - singit
4. Carotid Artery -leeg
is the longest bone
FEMUR
THE CHRONOLOGICAL TEST FOR BLOOD
a. PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD
b. THE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD
–it is to determine if it is blood
PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD
PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD are the following test?
- BENZIDINE TEST
- PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST
- GUAIACUM TEST
- LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST
- LUMINOL TEST
– an extremely sensitive test that can be applied to minute stain.
BENZIDINE TEST
-Its use has generally been discontinued, as it is known
carcinogen.
-A very delicate test and will detect blood when present in dilution of 1:300,000 parts.
BENZIDINE TEST
-For many years the most commonly used ____________ test for blood.
BENZIDINE TEST
-Its use has generally been discontinued, as it is known carcinogen.
BENZIDINE TEST
-This test is more sensitive than guaiacum test and is valuable as a negative result.
BENZIDINE TEST
never fails to detect blood even when very old, decomposed stain with all sorts of contamination is examined.
BENZIDINE TEST
–hindi na ginagamit ngayon dahil it can cause cancer
BENZIDINE TEST
-If the stain reacts negatively it is not blood. The positive result is only indicative that blood may be present.
BENZIDINE TEST
REAGENT of BENZIDINE TEST
a. BENZIDINE SOLUTION (a small amount of powdered Benzidine dissolved in glacial acetic acid)
b. 3% SOLUTION OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
PROCEDURE of different TEST are
ü Place a small fragment/portion of the stained material on a filter paper.
ü Add a drop of _______ and then a drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.
Positive Result of BENZIDINE TEST
NTENSE BLUE COLOR
POSITIVE COLOR is _____
FALSE POSITIVE COLOR is _____
DARK BLUE
LIGHT BLUE
is not specific test for blood.
BENZIDINE TEST
The reaction is weaker and produces faint coloration.
BENZIDINE TEST
Positive result may be obtained from the substances as sputum, pus, nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, clay and gum.
BENZIDINE TEST
– An alternative test to Benzidine test.
PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST
-A positive result with this test is highly indicative of blood. The negative result is therefore valuable and is conclusive as to the absence of blood.
PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST
-It can detect blood in a dilution of 1:80,000,000 parts.
PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST
REAGENT of PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST
a. PHENOLPHTHALEIN SOLUTION (1 to 2 grams of phenolphthalein to 100 ml of a 25% potassium hydroxide in water added with one gram of zinc powder heated until colorless).
b. 3% SOLUTION OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
Positive Result of PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST
ROSE COLOR DEVELOPS/DEEP PINK/PERMANGANATE COLOR.
The test will also give positive result to copper salts, potatoes and horseradish.
PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST
– A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a solution of 1:50,000 dilutions.
GUAIACUM TEST
-It may not react to very old stain.
GUAIACUM TEST
REAGENT of GUAIACUM TEST
a. FRESH TINCTURE OF GUAIAC RESIN (few lumps of this to 95% alcohol, then filter)
b. 3% HYDROGEN PEROXIDE SOLUTION OR FEW DROPS OF TURPENTINE
PROCEDURE:
ü Place a small pieced of a stained fabric on a porcelain dish.
ü Soak with fresh tincture of guaiac.
ü Add a few drops of Hydrogen Peroxide.
GUAIACUM TEST
–it has no false positive reaction
LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST
POSITIVE RESULT GUAIACUM TEST
BLUE COLOR
The test also reacts with saliva, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron, salts, cheese, glutten, potatoes, perspirations and other oxidizing substances.
GUAIACUM TEST
– This test is not as sensitive as the benzidine test.
LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST
REAGENT LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST
a. LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN SOLUTION (1-gram leucomalachite green dissolved in 48 ml glacial acetic acid and diluted to 250 ml water).
b. 3% HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
Positive Result LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST
MALACHITE GREEN OR BLUISH GREEN.
– An important presumptive identification for blood.
LUMINOL TEST
-By spraying this reagent onto a suspected item, large areas can be quickly screened for the presence of bloodstains.
LUMINOL TEST
-The reaction of this with blood results in the production of light rather than color.
LUMINOL TEST
-The sprayed object must be located in a darkened area while being viewed for the emission of light.
LUMINOL TEST
is extremely sensitive test.
LUMINOL TEST
-It is capable of detecting bloodstains diluted up to 10,000 times.
LUMINOL TEST
is known to destroy many important blood factors necessary for the forensic characterization of blood, so its use should be limited to seeking out blood invisible to the naked eye.
LUMINOL TEST
___________ present in hemoglobin acts as career of oxygen from the Hydrogen Peroxide to the active ingredients of the reagents (benzidine, guaiac, phenolphthalein and leucomalachite) and produces the characteristic colored compounds by oxidation.
peroxidase
Positive Result of LUMINOL TEST
LUMINESCENCE OR EMISSION OF LIGHT.
–determine if the sample is human blood or not
PRECIPITIN TEST FOR BLOOD
– This refers to an enzyme that accelerates the oxidation of several classes of organic compounds by peroxide.
PEROXIDASE
THE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD are the following:
- MICROSCOPIC TEST FOR BLOOD
- MICROCHEMICAL TEST AND MICROCRYSTALLINE TEST FOR BLOOD
-______ test are the most popular ones.
TAKAYAMA TEST AND TEICMANN TEST
– The identification of blood can be made more specific if this test is applied or performed.
MICROCHEMICAL TEST AND MICROCRYSTALLINE TEST FOR BLOOD
-TAKAYAMA TEST AND TEICMANN TEST are the most popular ones.
MICROCHEMICAL TEST AND MICROCRYSTALLINE TEST FOR BLOOD
– The test depends on the addition of the specific chemicals to the blood so that characteristics crystals with hemoglobin will be formed.
THE TEICMANN TEST
THE TEICMANN TEST Reagent:
SODIUM CHLORIDE, GLACIAL ACETIC ACID
Positive Result THE TEICMANN TEST
DARK BROWN RHOMBIC CRYSTAL OF HAEMIN OR HAEMATIN CHLORIDE
Procedure:
ü Place a minute fragment of the stain on a glass slide.
ü Add a small crystal of sodium chloride and 2 to 3 drops of acetic acid.
ü Place cover slip and heat gently over small flame to evaporate the acid.
ü Cool and examine under the high-power objective.
THE TEICMANN TEST
The test will also give positive results for indigo – dyed fabrics.
THE TEICMANN TEST
If the stain is old or washed or is changed by chemical reagents, the crystals are not formed.
THE TEICMANN TEST
– The test depends on the addition of specific chemicals to the blood so that characteristic crystal with hemoglobin will be formed.
ACETONE – HAEMIN TEST
The addition of too much salt or presence or moisture in the acid or over – heating of the slide may result in failure.
THE TEICMANN TEST
ACETONE – HAEMIN TEST Reagent:
ACETONE, DILUTE ACETIC ACID OR OXALIC ACID
Positive Result ACETONE – HAEMIN TEST
Small dark, Diachronic Acicular Crystals of Acetone Haemin.
– A delicate test for the presence of hemoglobin.
HAEMOCHROMOGEN CRYSTAL TEST OF THE TAKAYAMA TEST
ADVANTAGE:
ü more reliable
ü good results even with old stains
ü heating is not necessary
HAEMOCHROMOGEN CRYSTAL TEST OF THE TAKAYAMA TEST
-The test depends on the addition of specific chemicals to the blood so that characteristic crystals of hemoglobin derivatives will be formed.
HAEMOCHROMOGEN CRYSTAL TEST OF THE TAKAYAMA TEST
26.3% OF THIS BLOOD TYPE
A
PROCEDURE:
ü Takayama Reagent: 10% aqueous NaOH (5ml) + Pyridine (5ml) + Glucose Saturated solution (5ml) + Distilled water (16ml)
ü Suspected stain + a drop of Takayama Reagent
ü Heat the slide covered with coverslip on low flame
ü It produced DARK PINK needle or RHOMBOID shape crystals
HAEMOCHROMOGEN CRYSTAL TEST OF THE TAKAYAMA TEST
24.7% BLOOD TYPE
B
5.7%UNIVERSAL RECIPIENT
AB
-This test is performed by means of an optical instrument known as Spectroscope, an optical instrument for forming and examining spectra.
SPECTROSCOPE TEST FOR BLOOD
43% UNIVERSAL DONOR
O
– The most delicate and reliable test for the determination of the presence of blood in both old and recent stains.
SPECTROSCOPE TEST FOR BLOOD
PROCEDURE:
ü Dissolved bloodstain in water or saline solution.
ü Place in small chamber (glass) with parallel sides so arranged that the rays of light will pass directly through it.
ü The chamber is placed in the spectroscope and the instrument is so adjusted that the spectrum is clearly visible.
SPECTROSCOPE TEST FOR BLOOD
is the absorption properties of translucent colored fluids can be observed on the solar spectrum.
SPECTROSCOPIC TEST
is the standard test used to determine whether the stain/blood is of human or animal origin.
PRECIPITIN TEST FOR BLOOD
-Human bloodstain dried for as long as 10 to 15 years and longer may still give a positive what?
PRECIPITIN TEST FOR BLOOD
is very sensitive and requires only a small amount of blood for testing.
PRECIPITIN TEST FOR BLOOD
-Even extracts of tissues from mummies four to five years old have given positive reaction with the test.
PRECIPITIN TEST FOR BLOOD
-Experience has shown that human bloodstain diluted by washing in water and left with only a faint color may still yield a positive
PRECIPITIN TEST FOR BLOOD
-Even extracts of tissues from mummies _____ years old have given positive reaction with the test.
four to five
-Human bloodstain dried for as long as _____ years and longer may still give a positive precipitin reaction.
10 to 15
separates liquid and solid of blood
CENTRIFUGE
PRECIPITIN TEST Reagent:
PRECIPITIN/ANTISERUM
Procedure:
ü Scrape off bloodstain if on hard material.
ü Powder the scraping and extract with saline solution.
ü If the stain is cloth, paper or similar material, cut a small portion and the place in a test tube and add extract with saline solution.
ü Allow mixture to stand overnight and centrifuge to clean the solution.
ü Dilute with saline solution.
ü Layer an extract of the bloodstain on top of the human antiserum/precipitin in a capillary tube.
PRECIPITIN TEST
the test does not identify specifically human body but only a protein material from the specific animal type.
PRECIPITIN TEST
reacts not only with blood proteins but also with other body proteins as those on saliva, semen, mucus and other body fluids.
PRECIPITIN TEST
In order that a conclusion of human blood is arrived the -______ must be corroborated by supplementary chemical, microscopic or spectroscopic tests.
PRECIPITIN TEST
is great, but the reaction may be inhibited or even destroy by a number of factors.
PRECIPITIN TEST
Heat had the same effect. Fluid blood loses its power may stand 150. ____ may react with it poorly. Old stains may be identified after long period of time.
Rust and postmortem decomposition
It was _____ who discovered the four blood groups namely group O, group A, Group AB.
KARL LANDSTEINER
Heat had the same effect. _____ loses its power may stand 150. Rust and postmortem decomposition may react with it poorly. Old stains may be identified after long period of time.
Fluid blood
Heat had the same effect. Fluid blood loses its power may stand 150. Rust and postmortem decomposition may react with it poorly. _____ may be identified after long period of time.
Old stains
He named the four groups on the basis of the agglutinogen or antigen content of the red blood cells.
KARL LANDSTEINER
are characteristic chemical structures or “principles” that are found on the surface of each red blood cell, which stimulates the production of agglutinins.
ANTIGENS
–Rh factor or Rhesus factor of blood is
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
There are two agglutinogens classified as
AGGLUTINOGEN A AND AGGLUTINOGEN B
Serum contains proteins or “principles” known as
ANTIBODIES OR AGGLUTININS
which cause agglutination or clumping together of the red blood cells
ANTIBODIES OR AGGLUTININS
They are antitoxin substance within the body, which reacts when confronted with a specific antigen to protect the system.
ANTIBODIES OR AGGLUTININS
There are two agglutinins classified as
ANTI – A AND ANTI – B
The inheritance of human blood groups is predetermined by the presence or absence in the chromosomes of two factors or genes called
gene A and gene B.
re present at birth while agglutinins are demonstrable in about 50% of newly born infants.
AGGLUTINOGEN A AND B
In the joining of the ovum and spermatozoon during fertilization, a new pair of genes is formed corresponding to the gene found in the chromosomes of the parents called
ZYGOTE.
If the two genes are not the same which is called ____ or hybrid a new combination will arise in the next generation.
heterozygous
According to him the blood group of any individual is determined by combinations of A, B and O in a particular pair of chromosomes.
BEINSTEIN’S THEORY
postulates the presence of three allelic genes A, B and O.
BEINSTEIN’S THEORY
are dominant over gene O
Genes A and B
determine the presence of the corresponding agglutinogens
A and B
– This refers to any of the complex chemical units in the chromosomes by which heredity characters are transmitted that occur in pair that is a factor occurring singly in a garmete.
Gene
determines their absence.
O
represents the absence in the chromosomes of either the _____ gene that is responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics.
O
A or B
-There are two genes or factors called _____, these are found in the chromosomes.
GENE A AND GENE B
-Since chromosomes go on pair, each of which carries or fails to carry one of these genes and an individual’s genetic constitution may be represented by AA, AB, BB, BO, AO, OO which are called
GENOTYPES
– This refers to paired genes.
GENOTYPE
– This refers to term used to denote the expression of the inherited characteristics as found in the individual that is actually the blood groups.
PHENOTYPES
– This refers to any of the microscopic rod – shaped bodies bearing genes responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics are observed to occur in pairs.
CHROMOSOMES
-It is either homozygous or heterozygous.
GENOTYPE
– This refers to paired genes that are similar.
HOMOZYGOUS GENOTYPE OR PURE GENOTYPE
– This refers to sexual cells; reproductive cell that unites with one another to from cell that develops into a new individual.
GAMETE
– This refers to male sexual cell.
SPERM CELL OR MICROGAMETE
– This refers to paired genes that are dissimilar or not alike.
HETEROZYGOUS GENOTYPE OR HYBRID
– This refers to pair of genes occurring in a gamete produced during fertilization.
ZYGOTE
-The cell formed by the union of an ovum and sperm.
ZYGOTE
– This refers to female sexual cell.
EGG CELL OR MACROGAMETE
– This refers to pairs or contrasting genes, which determines the expression of the inherited characteristics of an individual.
ALLELES
In 1927, _____ discovered two new agglutinogens in human red blood cells that define three types of blood, namely TYPE M, TYPE N AND TYPE MN. These are independent of the agglutinogens A and B.
LANDSTEINER AND LEVINE
In 1927, LANDSTEINER AND LEVINE discovered two new agglutinogens in human red blood cells that define three types of blood, namely ______. These are independent of the agglutinogens A and B.
TYPE M, TYPE N AND TYPE MN
____ however do not contain natural agglutinins for M. The agglutinins can be demonstrated only by heter – agglutination reaction with appropriate immune rabbit sera.
human sera
are always heterozygous
Types MN
is an indirect grouping technique of bloodstains, and it depends on the detection of agglutinogen in the dried blood.
ABSORPTION TECHNIQUE OR ABSORPTION – ELUTION
are already ruptured due to dying, leaving no cells in the stain to be agglutinated.
red blood cells
METHODS OF BLOOD TYPING
- DIRECT/ FORWARD TYPING
- INDIRECT/ REVERSE/ BACKWARD TYPING
-came from LECTINS
DIRECT/ FORWARD TYPING
-anti-sera A and B
DIRECT/ FORWARD TYPING
are plant seed extracts
LECTINS
-capable of agglutinating a and b antigens
DIRECT/ FORWARD TYPING
Principle: blood type of the serum is the opposite of the antigen where agglutination occurs
INDIRECT/ REVERSE/ BACKWARD TYPING
