Chapter 3 Flashcards
Learning
a relatively permanent change in behaviour caused by experience either directly or indirectly
Behavioural Learning Theories
the perspectives on learning that assume learning takes place as the result of responses to external events (as opposed to internal thought processes)
Classical Conditioning
the learning that occurs when a stimulus eliciting a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own but will cause a similar response over time because of its association with the first stimulus (i.e. Pavlov’s Dogs)
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
a stimulus naturally capable of causing a response
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
a stimulus that causes a response because of a learned association
Conditioned Response (CR)
a new or modified response elicited by a controlled stimulus
Associative Learning
learning that occurs when the consumer makes simple associations between stimuli, without more complex cognitive processes (memory or cognition) taking place
Repetition
when a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus have been paired a number of times it increases associated learning
Decay
structural changes in the brain produced by learning decrease over time
Extinction
the process whereby a learned connection between a stimulus and a response is eroded so that the response is no longer reinforced
Stimulus Generalization
tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke similar conditioned responses; OR the process that occurs when the behaviour caused by a reaction to one stimulus occurs in the presence of other, similar stimuli
Stimulus Discrimination
when a stimulus similar to a CS is NOT followed by a UCS; OR the process that occurs when the behaviour caused by two stimuli is different, as when consumer learn to differentiate a brand from its competitors
Masked Branding
the strategy of deliberately hiding a product’s true origin
Brand Equity
a brand that has strong positive associations in a consumer’s memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a result
Advertising Wearout
the condition that occurs when consumers become so used to hearing or seeing a marketing stimulus that they no longer pay attention to it
Family Branding
a variety of products capitalize on the reputation of the company name
Product Line Extensions
related products are added to a product line of an established brand
Licensing
well-known names are rented by others in order to linked products and services with well-established brands
Look-Alike Packaging
distinctive packaging designs create strong associations with a particular brand
Instrumental Conditioning
the process by which the individual learns to perform behaviours that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes
Shaping
the learning of a desired behaviour over time by rewarding intermediate actions until the final result is obtained; rewards for successive steps taken toward the desired response
Positive Reinforcement
the process whereby rewards provided by the environment strengthen responses to stimuli; OR positive event strengthens the responses which are then followed by positive outcomes
Negative Reinforcement
the process whereby the environment weakens responses to stimuli so that inappropriate behaviour is avoided; OR removes something negative in order to avoid a negative outcome
Punishment
the learning that occurs when a response is followed by unpleasant events
Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement
reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses
Variable-Ratio Reinforcement
behaviour of a person is reinforced after a certain number of responses, but he or she does not know how many responses are required; people tend to respond at very high and steady rates and behaviour is difficult to extinguish
Fixed-Interval Reinforcement
after a specified time period has passed, the first response that is made bring the reward; people tend to respond slowly right after being reinforced, but their responses speed up as the time for the next reinforcement looms
Variable-Interval Reinforcement
the time that must pass before reinforcement is delivered varies around some average; because the person does not know exactly when to expect the reinforcement, responses must be performed at a consistent rate
Frequency Marketing
reinforces regular purchases by giving them prizes with values that increase along with the amount purchased; OR reinforcing regular purchases with predetermined rewards
Cognitive Learning Theory
the perspective on learning that assumes that learning takes place as the result of internal mental processes: People actively use information from the world around them to master their environment and solve problems
Observational Learning
the process in which people learn by watching the actions of others and noting the reinforcements they receive for their behaviours
Modelling
the process of imitating the behaviours of others
Components of Observational Learning
Attention–> Retention–>Production Processes–>Motivation–>Observational Learning
Memory
the process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be available when needed
Encoding
the process in which information from short-term memory is entered into long-term memory in recognizable form
Storage
the process that occurs when knowledge entered into long-term memory is integrated with what is already in memory and “warehoused” until needed
Retrieval
the process whereby desired information is accessed from long-term memory; OR information stored in the memory is found as needed
Sensory Memory
the temporary storage in memory of information received from our senses
Sensory Meaning
such as shapes and colours; meaning activated when a person sees a picture of the stimulus
Semantic Meaning
refers to the symbolic associations; meaning is encoded at a more abstract level
Episodic Memories
memories for events that are personally relevant therefore a person’s motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong
Flashbulb Memories
similar to episodic memories however are quite vivid and compelling
Short-Term Memory
stores information for a limited period of time and its capacity is limited; holds memories we are currently processing
Chunking
the process in which information is stored by combining small pieces of information into larger ones; it is a configuration that is familiar to the person and can be manipulated into a unit (i.e. a brand)
Long-Term Memory
the system that allows us to retain information for a long period of time
Elaborative Rehearsal
a cognitive process that allows information to move from short-term memory into long-term memory by thinking about the meaning of a stimulus and relating it to other information already in memory
Activation Models of Memory
approaches to memory stressing different levels of processing that occur and activate some aspects of memory rather than others, depending on the nature of the processing task
Associative Network Models
propose that an incoming piece of information is stored in an associative network containing many bits of information organized according to some set of relationships
Knowledge Structures
storage units for information organized according to a set of related information; information is placed into nodes which are connected by associative links and then are chunked into an abstract category
Hierarchal Processing Model
processing begins at a very basic level and is subject to increasingly complex processing operations that require greater cognitive capacity; if processing at one level fails to evoke the next level, processing is terminated and capacity is allocated to other tasks
Spreading Activation
the notion that energy spreads across nodes of varying levels of abstraction; as one memory node is activated, other nodes associated with it also becomes activated meaning it spreads across the network; allows consumers to shift back and forth between levels of meaning
Brand Specific
meaning type in terms of claims made for the brand
Ad Specific
meaning type in terms of the medium or content of the ad itself
Brand Identification
meaning type in terms of brand name
Product Category
meaning type in terms of how the product works, where it should be used, or experiences with the product
Evaluative Reactions
meaning type in terms of whether “that looks fun”
Schema
an organized collection of beliefs and feelings represented in a cognitive category
Script
a learned schema containing a sequence of events an individual expects to occur
Analogical Learning
learning that occurs through highlighting similarities between one stimulus and a second stimulus
Base
in analogical learning, this is the existing product as it is the original source of knowledge
Target
in analogical learning, this is the new product as this is what the existing knowledge will be transferred to
Attributes
identifiable features or properties of the product (form of analogical learning)
Relations
refer to how the product relates to the desired outcome (form of analogical learning)
Situational Factors
relating to the environment in which the message is delivered (in retrieval); affected by pioneering brand, involvement, viewing environment, and postexperience advertising effects
Pioneering Brand
first brand to enter a market which is retrieved more easily from memory than follower brands
Postexperience Advertising Effects
how powerful marketing communications can be in shaping our daily experiences
Familiarity and Recall
as a general rule, prior familiarity with an item enhances its recall; OR the more experience a person has with a product, the better use that person is able to make of the product information
Salience
refers to the prominence or level or activation in memory; stimuli that stand out in contrast to their environment are more likely to command attention; also almost any technique that increases novelty of a stimulus also improves recall; mystery ads in which the brand is not determined until the end of the ad
Unipolar Emotions
emotions that are either wholly negative or wholly positive
Interference
a process whereby additional learned information displaces the earlier information, resulting in memory loss for the item learned previously (forgetting)
Retroactive Interference
stimulus response associations will be forgotten if consumers subsequently learn new responses to the same or similar stimuli
Proactive Interference
prior learning can interfere with new learning
Memory Marker
products or ads that serve as retrieval cues in recalling memories from the past
Autobiographical Memories
memories of our own past; these memories are a way that advertisements create emotional responses
Nostalgia
bittersweet emotion where the past is viewed with sadness and longing; many “classic” products appeal to consumers’ memories of their younger days
Retro Brand
an updated version of a brand from a prior historical period; these products trigger nostalgia
Nostalgia Index
indicates that people’s tastes in such products are influenced by what was popular during certain critical periods of their youth
Recognition Tests
subjects are shown ads one at a time and are asked whether they have seen them before; tend to be more reliable and do not decay over time like recall tests; typically score higher than recall tests because it is a simpler process
Recall Tests
asks consumers to think independently of what they have seen, without being prompted for information first; tends to be more important in situations in which consumers do not have product data at their disposal
Response Bias
results obtained from a measuring instrument are not necessarily caused by what is being measured, but rather to something else about the instrument or respondent; i.e. respondents are eager to be “good subjects”
Memory Lapses
people are prone to unintentionally forgetting information through: omitting (leaving out facts), averaging (tendency to normalize facts and not report extreme cases), telescoping (inaccurate recall of time)
