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Biology 1407 - 02M > Chapter 27 > Flashcards

Chapter 27 Flashcards

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1
Q

Who is Fracastoro?

A

The person who theorized that diseases were caused by unseen organisms.

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2
Q

Who is Leeuwenhoek?

A

The person who first saw bacteria through a homemade microscope.

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3
Q

Who is Lois Pasteur?

A

The person who used chicken broth to show that life did not come spontaneously (infectious disease investigation).

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4
Q

What is Koch’s postulates?

A
  1. Microorganism must be present in affected individual and not healthy individual.
  2. Microorganism must be isolated from infected individual and grown in pure culture.
  3. Microorganism must be present in an individual if a healthy individual gets the same disease.
  4. The same microorganism must be isolated from the healthy person who got affected.
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5
Q

How are prokaryotes different from eukaryotes?

A
  • Prokaryotes are single-celled and can form a biofilm
  • usually smaller (vary in sizes)
  • They perform binary fission
  • They have plasmids and a nucleoid
  • They perform a horizontal gene transfer which allows for evolutionary change
  • They can have a single protein fiber flagella that rotates while a eukaryote’s flagella performs a whip-like motion
  • Their species have a greater metabolic and nutritional diversity
  • Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles while prokaryotes have structures surrounded by a lipid bilayer, monolayer, or protein shell
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6
Q

What are the characteristics of a pili?

A
  • on some gram-negative bacteria
  • shorter
  • helps cell adhere to surfaces and hosts
  • helps pathogenetic cells invade tissues
  • shares genetic info
  • can twitch (provides directional movement)
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7
Q

What does the structure of the prokaryotes do?

A

Isolate metabolic pathways
or
provide storage

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8
Q

How does bacteria differ from archaea?

A
  • bacteria have a fluid mosaic plasma membrane while archaea has a monolayer with tetraethers that can form branches
  • bacteria has a peptidoglycan cell wall while the archaea cell wall has a variety of carbs and proteins
  • archaea has an initiatation of DNA replication that is similar to eukaryotes
  • archaea has an RNA polymerase similar to eukaryotes
  • archaea has a translation machinery similar to eukaryotes
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9
Q

How were prokaryotes classified in the early days?

A

They were classified through observable/microscopically detectable differences such as:
- photosynthetic ability
- cell wall structure
- motility
- spore-forming ability
- pathogenecity
- unicellular/colony-forming/filamentous

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10
Q

What classification of prokaryotes is done now?

A

Molecular classification, which includes:
- analysis of amino acid sequence and nucleic acid base sequence
- whole genome sequencing
- gene and RNA sequencing
- nucleic acid hybridization

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11
Q

Who is Carl Woese?

A

Created the three domain system of phylogeny

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12
Q

The three domain system relies on what for evolutionary relatedness?

A

rDNA sequences

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13
Q

Where is the most widely accepted groupings of prokaryotes found in?

A

Bergey’s Manuel of Systematic Bacteriology: 2nd Edition (2012)

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14
Q

Most bacteria have been studied in detail and cultured.

A

False

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15
Q

How are prokaryotes classifies in shapes?

A
  • shapes are :bacillus, coccus, spirillum, spirochetes, pleiomorphic (which usually have no cell wall)
  • These shapes can form chains, change throughout time, and grow branched filaments
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16
Q

How are prokaryotes classifies in size?

A

They are generally smaller

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17
Q

How is their size a benefit?

A

Since their ration of surface area to volume is quite high, they can quickly take up nutrients. This allows them to replicate faster, which allows more chances for mutations that give them better survival rates.

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18
Q

What are the characteristics of a prokaryotic cell wall?

A
  • multiple layers of peptidoglycan (bacteria only)
  • maintains cell shape and prevents swelling/rupturing in hypotonic environments
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19
Q

Peptidoglycan is similar to what structure in the archaea?

A

Pseodomurein

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20
Q

What are the two types of bacteria with a gram stain?

A

gram-positive and gram-negative

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21
Q

What are the characteristics of gram-positive?

A
  • thicker peptidoglycan
  • less resistant
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22
Q

How is gram-positive found?

A
  • crystal violet dye
  • crystal violet-iodine complex
  • alcohol dehydrates cell wall
  • purple covers red dye
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23
Q

What are the characteristics of gram-negative?

A
  • thinner peptidoglycan
  • more resistant due to outermembrane
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24
Q

How is gram-negative found?

A
  • crystal violet dye
  • crystal violet-iodine complex
  • alcohol does not stick to peptidoglycan, thus washes away complex
  • red dye stains colorless cell
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25
Q

What are the characteristics of the S-layer?

A
  • found in some bacteria and most archaea
  • helps cell attach to surfaces
  • provides protection
  • traps nearby molecules
  • acts as a selectively permeable structure
  • made up of protein/glycoprotein
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26
Q

What are the characteristics of the capsule/slime layer?

A
  • capsule layers are detected easily
  • slime layers are loosely organized and harder to detect
  • both help cell adhere to surfaces
  • both help a cell evade an immune response
  • both are gelatinous
  • found in some bacteria
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27
Q

What is the order of the cell membranes? (innermost to outermost)

A

-plasma membrane
- peptidoglycan
- outer membrane (only in gram negative bacteria)
- S-layer (optional)
- capsule/slime layer (optional)

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28
Q

How is the bacteria flagella different from archaea flagella?

A

bacteria:
- called a flagellin
- rotation powered by a proton gradient

archaea:
- named archaellum
- rotation powered by ATP
- similar to bacterial pili
- flagella is anchored differently to cell

29
Q

What are endospores?

A

A process that provides a thick, resistant wall around genome and small parts of the cytoplasm when a prokaryotic cell undergoes large amounts of stress.

This allows the cell to later germinate and reproduce.

It is found in tetanus, botulism, and anthrax.

30
Q

What are the characteristics of the internal organization of prokaryotes?

A
  • have membrane folds which increase surface area
  • have a nucleoid region for condensed, circular DNA
  • their ribosomes are smaller and composed of different protein and RNA content (antibiotics can recognize the difference)
  • They can have lipid/protein bounded structures
31
Q

What is conjugation?

A

Cells exchanging genes through contact (prokaryotes)

32
Q

What plasmid performs conjugation?

A

F (fertility) plasmid
- helps with cell replication

33
Q

What are cells with and without F plasmids called?

A
  • Cells with F plasmids are called donor cells (written as F+ cell)
  • Cells without F plasmids are called recipient cells (written as F- cell)
34
Q

How is the conjugation transfer performed?

A
  • F+ creates a conjugation bridge
  • both cells perform a rolling circle replication
  • second strand synthesis is done
35
Q

How is conjugation performed through recombination of F plasmid and host chromosome?

A
  • Either through integration where an F+ cell becomes an Hfr cell (cell with F plasmid DNA and normal DNA)
  • Or through excision where an Hfr cell becomes an F+ cell

complete plasmid is not given

36
Q

How can conjugation help prokaryotic cells?

A

R (resistance) plasmids can be shared around to give prokaryotic cells resistance

37
Q

What can the study of conjugation help with?

A

Can help map order of the genes in a chromosome

38
Q

What is transduction?

A

Cells exchanging genetic info through virsues

39
Q

How is a generalized transduction performed?

A
  • Phage infects cell
  • phage takes in bacterial information
  • phage infects another bacterial cell
  • homologous recombination is performed
40
Q

What is a specialized phage that exhibits a lysogenic cycle?

A
  • Phage infects DNA
  • DNA is recombined with host DNA
  • Viral DNA forces cell to excise itself
  • Cell dies and more viruses come out of cell
41
Q

How is a specialized transduction performed?

A
  • specialized phage gives infected DNA
  • DNA joins host DNA
  • viral DNA excises improperly
  • Phage packes both viral and host DNA
  • Phage infects another cell
  • Cell now has its own DNA, viral DNA, and another cell’s DNA
42
Q

Example of a specialized phage?

A

Phage gamma

43
Q

What does the study of transduction help with?

A

mapping genes in a genome

44
Q

What is transformation?

A

Cells exchanging genetic information through their environment

45
Q

What is the process of transformation?

A
  • Cell dies and leaves genetic info in the environment
  • another cell comes and takes up that genetic info
46
Q

Transformation is the only process that evolved naturally. (True/False)

A

True

47
Q

What does the study of transformation help with?

A

Molecular cloning and DNA manipulation

48
Q

How can bacteria help see if a compound is mutagenic or not.

A

Through the Ames test

49
Q

How is the Ames test performed?

A
  • An auxotroph is mixed with a reversion prototroph
  • If colonies grow, compound is mutagenic
50
Q

Reversion prototroph is?

A

bacteria that grows on minimal media and reverses mutation

51
Q

Auxotroph is?

A

Bacteria that cannot work due to one of its amino acid not synthesizing from a mutation

52
Q

what is CRISPR?

A

a bacetria’s immune system

53
Q

How does CRISPR work?

A
  • CAS protein implements a virus’s DNA into the cell’s segmented DNA (CRISPR loci)
  • Cell replicates viral DNA into a segmented RNA portion
  • CAS9 uses the RNA portion to recognize and destroy same virus
54
Q

What is the nutrtional strategy of a prokaryote?

A

ways that prokaryotes meet growth demand:
- how they get carbon, electrons, and energy

55
Q

How is carbon obtained?

A
  • in reduced forms through heterotrophs
  • in oxidized forms through autotrophs
56
Q

How are electrons obtained?

A
  • from reduced, inorganic substances from the environment through lithotrophs
  • from reduced carbon sources through organotrophs
57
Q

How is energy obtained?

A
  • from harvesting light through phototrophs
  • from oxidizing reduced chemical from the environment through chemotrophs
58
Q

How are the prokaryotic nutrional stragtegy named and classified?

A

Named through a string of words that describe how they obtain carbon, electrons, and energy

  • chemoorganoheterotrophs
  • chemolithoheterotrophs
  • chemolithoautotrophs
  • photolithoautotrophs
  • photoorganiheterotrophs
59
Q

What are the characteristics of chemoorganoheterotrophs?

A
  • use reduced organic carbon for all sources
  • used by most pathogens and all animals
60
Q

What are the characteristics of chemolithoheterotrophs?

A
  • uses reduced inorganic chemical for all sources
  • used by prokaryotes
61
Q

What are the characteristics of chemolithoautotrophs?

A
  • contributes to nutrient cycling
62
Q

What are the characteristics of photolithoautotrophs?

A
  • an example would be green plant photosynthesis
63
Q

What are the characteristics of photoorganoheterotrophs?

A
  • used in rare prokaryotes (purple and green nunsulfur bacteria)
64
Q

Can prokaryotic switch nutritonal strategies?

A

Yes, based on their environment

65
Q

The transformation of energy into a usable source for a cell involves which process?

A

Either photosynthesis, respiration, or fermentation

66
Q

What are the differences in respiration between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A
  • eukaryotes use specific molecules for their processes while prokaryotes use a wide variety for each of their steps
  • eukaryotes are aerobic while prokaryotes can be either anaerobic or aerobic
67
Q

When is fermentation used?

A

When the terminal electron acceptor is not avilable for repiration

68
Q

What are the differences in fermentation between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A
  • prokaryotes have greater diversity than eukaryotes in their metabolic pathways

Biology 1407 - 02M (8 decks)

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